research report characteristics

Research Report Meaning, Characteristics and Types

Table of contents:-, research report meaning, characteristics of good research report, key characteristics of research report, types of research report, stages in preparation of research report, characteristics of a good report.

A research report is a document that conveys the outcomes of a study or investigation. Its purpose is to communicate the research’s findings, conclusions, and implications to a particular audience. This report aims to offer a comprehensive and unbiased overview of the research process, methodology, and results.

Once the researcher has completed data collection , data processing, developing and testing hypotheses, and interpretation of responses, the next important phase in research is the preparation of the research report. A research report is essential for the communication of research findings to its potential users.

The research report must be free from personal bias, external influences, and subjective factors. i.e., it must be free from one’s liking and disliking. The research report must be prepared to meet impersonal needs.

What is Research Report?

According to Lancaster, “A report is a statement of collected and considered facts, so drawn-ups to give clear and concise information to persons who are not already in possession of the full facts of the subject matter of the report”.

When researchers communicate their results in writing, they create a research report. It includes the research methodology, approaches, data collection precautions, research findings, and recommendations for solving related problems. Managers can put this result into action for more effective decision making .

Generally, top management places a higher emphasis on obtaining the research outcome rather than delving into the research procedure. Hence, the research report acts as a presentation that highlights the procedure and methodology adopted by the researcher.

The research report presents the complete procedure in a comprehensive way that in turn helps the management in making crucial decisions. Creating a research report adheres to a specific format, sequence, and writing style.

Enhance the effectiveness of a research report by incorporating various charts, graphs, diagrams, tables, etc. By using different representation techniques, researchers can convince the audience as well as the management in an effective way.

Characteristics of a good research report are listed below:

• Clarity and Completeness
• Reliability
• Comprehensibility and Readability
• Logical Content

The following paragraphs outline the characteristics of a good research report.

1) Accuracy

Report information must be accurate and based on facts, credible sources and data to establish reliability and trustworthiness. It should not be biased by the personal feelings of the writer. The information presented must be as precise as possible.

2) Simplicity

The language of a research report should be as simple as possible to ensure easy understanding. A good report communicates its message clearly and without ambiguity through its language.

It is a document of practical utility; therefore, it should be grammatically accurate, brief, and easily understood. 

Jargon and technical words should be avoided when writing the report. Even in a technical report, there should be restricted use of technical terms if it is to be presented to laymen.

3) Clarity and Completeness

The report must be straightforward, lucid, and comprehensive in every aspect. Ambiguity should be avoided at all costs. Clarity is achieved through the strategic and practical organization of information. Report writers should divide their report into short paragraphs with headings and insert other suitable signposts to enhance clarity. They should: 

• Approach their task systematically, 
• Clarify their purpose, 
• Define their sources, 
• State their findings and 
• Make necessary recommendations. 

A report should concisely convey the key points without unnecessary length, ensuring that the reader’s patience is not lost and ideas are not confused. Many times, people lack the time to read lengthy reports.

However, a report must also be complete. Sometimes, it is important to have a detailed discussion about the facts. A report is not an essay; therefore, points should be added to it.

5) Appearance

A report requires a visually appealing presentation and, whenever feasible, should be attention-grabbing. An effective report depends on the arrangement, organization, format, layout, typography, printing quality, and paper choice. Big companies often produce very attractive and colourful Annual Reports to showcase their achievements and financial performance.

6) Comprehensibility and Readability

Reports should be clear and straightforward for easy understanding. The style of presentation and the choice of words should be attractive to readers. The writer must present the facts in elegant and grammatically correct English so that the reader is compelled to read the report from beginning to end.

Only then does a report serve its purpose. A report written by different individuals on the same subject matter can vary depending on the intended audience.

7) Reliability

Reports should be reliable and should not create an erroneous impression in the minds of readers due to oversight or neglect. The facts presented in a report should be pertinent.

Every fact in a report must align with the central purpose, but it is also vital to ensure that all pertinent information is included.

Irrelevant facts can make a report confusing, and the exclusion of relevant facts can render it incomplete and likely to mislead.

Report writing should not incur unnecessary expenses. Cost-effective methods should be used to maintain a consistent level of quality when communicating the content.

9) Timelines

Reports can be valuable and practical when they reach the readers promptly. Any delay in the submission of reports renders the preparation of reports futile and sometimes obsolete.

10) Logical Content

The points mentioned in a report should be arranged in a step-by-step logical sequence and not haphazardly. Distinctive points should have self-explanatory headings and sub-headings. The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential for a report.

Planning is necessary before a report is prepared, as reports invariably lead to decision-making, and inaccurate facts may result in unsuccessful decisions.

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A research report serves as a means of communicating research findings to the readers effectively.

• Clarity in Information
• Optimal Length
• Objective and Simple Language
• Clear Thinking and Logical Organization
• Engaging Style
• Clarity in Presentation
• Readability
• Best Composition Practices
• Inferences and Conclusions
• Proper References
• Attractive Appearance

i) Clarity in Information

A well-defined research report must define the what, why, who, whom, when, where, and how of the research study. It must help the readers to understand the focus of the information presented.

ii) Optimal Length

The report should strike a balance, being sufficiently brief and appropriately extended. It should cover the subject matter adequately while maintaining the reader’s interest.

iii) Objective and Simple Language

The report should be written in an objective style, employing simple language. Correctness, precision, and clarity should be prioritized, avoiding wordiness, indirection, and pompous language.

iv) Clear Thinking and Logical Organization

An excellent report integrates clear thinking, logical organization, and sound interpretation of the research findings.

v) Engaging Style

It should not be dull; instead, it should captivate and sustain the reader’s interest.

vi) Accuracy

Accuracy is paramount. The report must present facts objectively, eschewing exaggerations and superlatives.

vii) Clarity in Presentation

Presentation clarity is achieved through familiar words, unambiguous statements, and explicit definitions of new concepts or terms.

viii) Coherence

The logical flow of ideas and a coherent sequence of sentences contribute to a smooth continuity of thought.

ix) Readability

Even technical reports should be easily understandable. Translate technicalities into reader-friendly language.

x) Best Composition Practices

Follow best composition practices, ensuring readability through proper paragraphing, short sentences, and the use of illustrations, examples, section headings, charts, graphs, and diagrams.

xi) Inferences and Conclusions

Draw sound inferences and conclusions from statistical tables without repeating them in verbal form.

xii) Proper References

Footnote references should be correctly formatted, and the bibliography should be reasonably complete.

xiii) Attractive Appearance

The report should be visually appealing, maintaining a neat and clean appearance, whether typed or printed.

xiv) Error-Free

The report should be free from all types of mistakes, including language, factual, spelling, and calculation errors.

In striving for these qualities, the researcher enhances the overall quality of the report.

Research reports are of the following types:

• Technical Report
• Manuscripts for Journal Articles
• Thesis and Dissertations
• Other Types of Research Report

1) Technical Report

Technical reports are reports which contain detailed information about the research problem and its findings. These reports are typically subject to review by individuals interested in research methodology. Such reports include detailed descriptions of used methods for research design such as universe selection , sample preparation, designing questionnaire , identifying potential data sources, etc. These reports provide a complete description of every step, method, and tool used. When crafting technical reports, we assume that users possess knowledge of research methodology, which is why the language used in these reports is technical. Technical reports are valuable in situations where there is a need for statistical analysis of collected data. Researchers also employ it in conducting a series of research studies, where they can repetitively use the methodology.

2) Manuscripts for Journal Articles

When authors prepare a report with a particular layout or design for publishing in an academic or scientific journal, it becomes a “manuscript for journal articles”. Journal articles are a concise and complete presentation of a particular research study. While technical reports present a detailed description of all the activities in research, journal articles are known for presenting only a few critical areas or findings of a study. The readers or audience of journal articles include other researchers, management and executives, strategic analysts and the general public, interested in the topic.

In general, a manuscript for a journal article typically ranges from 10 to 30 pages in length. Sometimes there is a page or word limit for preparing the report. Authors primarily submit manuscripts for journal articles online, although they occasionally send paper copies through regular mail.

3) Thesis and Dissertations

Students working towards a Master’s, PhD, or another higher degree generally produce a thesis or dissertation, which is a form of research report. Like other normal research reports, the thesis or dissertation usually describes the design, tools or methods and results of the student’s research in detail.

These reports typically include a detailed section called the literature review, which encompasses relevant literature and previous studies on the topic. Firstly, the work or research of the student is analysed by a professional researcher or an expert in that particular research field, and then the thesis is written under the guidance of a professional supervisor. Dissertations and theses usually span approximately 120 to 300 pages in length.

Generally, the university or institution decides the length of the dissertation or thesis. A distinctive feature of a thesis or a dissertation is that it is quite economical, as it requires few printed and bound copies of the report. Sometimes electronic copies are required to be submitted along with the hard copy of the thesis or dissertations. Compact discs (CDs) are used to generate the electronic copy.

4) Other Types of Research Report

Along with the above-mentioned types, there are some other types of research reports, which are as follows:

• Popular Report
• Interim Report
• Summary Report
• Research Abstract

i) Popular Report

A popular report is prepared for the use of administrators, executives, or managers. It is simple and attractive in the form of a report. Clear and concise statements are used with less technical or statistical terms. Data representation is kept very simple through minimal use of graphs and charts. It has a different format than that of a technical one by liberally using margins and blank spaces. The style of writing a popular report is journalistic and precise. It is written to facilitate reading rapidly and comprehending quickly.

ii) Interim Report

An interim report is a kind of report which is prepared to show the sponsors, the progress of research work before the final presentation of the report. It is prepared when there is a certain time gap between the data collection and presentation. In this scenario, the completed portion of data analysis along with its findings is described in a particular interim report.

iii) Summary Report

This type of report is related to the interest of the general public. The findings of such a report are helpful for the decision making of general users. The language used for preparing a summary report is comprehensive and simple. The inclusion of numerous graphs and tables enhances the report’s overall clarity and comprehension. The main focus of this report is on the objectives, findings, and implications of the research issue.

iv) Research Abstract

The research abstract is a short presentation of the technical report. All the elements of a particular technical report, such as the research problem, objectives, sampling techniques, etc., are described in the research abstract but the description is concise and easy.

Research reports result from meticulous and deliberate work. Consequently, the preparation of the information can be delineated into the following key stages:

1) Logical Understanding and Subject Analysis: This stage involves a comprehensive grasp and analysis of the subject matter.

2) Planning/Designing the Final Outline: In this phase, the final outline of the report is meticulously planned and designed.

3) Write-Up/Preparation of Rough Draft: The report takes shape during this stage through the composition of a rough draft.

4) Polishing/Finalization of the Research Report: The final stage encompasses refining and polishing the report to achieve its ultimate form.

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Logical understanding and subject analysis.

This initial stage focuses on the subject’s development, which can be achieved through two approaches:

• Logical development and
• Chronological development

Logical development relies on mental connections and associations between different aspects facilitated by rational analysis. Typically, this involves progressing from simple to complex elements. In contrast, chronological development follows a sequence of time or events, with instructions or descriptions often adhering to chronological order.

Designing the Final Outline of the Research Report

This marks the second stage in report writing. Once the subject matter is comprehended, the subsequent step involves structuring the report, arranging its components, and outlining them. This stage is also referred to as the planning  and organization stage. While ideas may flow through the author’s mind, they must create a plan, sketch, or design. These are necessary for achieving a harmonious succession to become more accessible, and the author may be unsure where to commence or conclude. Effective communication of research results hinges not only on language but predominantly on the meticulous planning and organization of the report.

Preparation of the Rough Draft

The third stage involves the writing and drafting of the report. This phase is pivotal for the researcher as they translate their research study into written form, articulating what they have accomplished and how they intend to convey it.

The clarity in communication and reporting during this stage is influenced by several factors, including the audience, the technical complexity of the problem, the researcher’s grasp of facts and techniques, their proficiency in the language (communication skills), the completeness of notes and documentation, and the availability of analyzed results.

Depending on these factors, some authors may produce the report with just one or two drafts. In contrast, others, with less command over language and a lack of clarity about the problem and subject matter, may require more time and multiple drafts (first draft, second draft, third draft, fourth draft, etc.).

Finalization of the Research Report

This marks the last stage, potentially the most challenging phase in all formal writing. Constructing the structure is relatively easy, but refining and adding the finishing touches require considerable time. Consider, for instance, the construction of a house. The work progresses swiftly up to the roofing (structure) stage, but the final touches and completion demand a significant amount of time.

The rough draft, whether it is the second draft or the n th draft, must undergo rewriting and polishing to meet the requirements. The meticulous revision of the rough draft is what distinguishes a mediocre piece of writing from a good one. During the polishing and finalization phase, it is crucial to scrutinize the report for weaknesses in the logical development of the subject and the cohesion of its presentation. Additionally, attention should be given to the mechanics of writing, including language, usage, grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Good research possesses certain characteristics, which are as follows:

• Empirical Basis
• Logical Approach
• Systematic Nature
• Replicability
• Validity and Verifiability
• Theory and Principle Development

1. Empirical Basis: It implies that any conclusion drawn is grounded in hardcore evidence collected from real-life experiences and observations. This foundation provides external validity to research results.

2. Logical Approach: Good research is logical, guided by the rules of reasoning and analytical processes of induction (general to specific) and deduction (particular to the public). Logical reasoning is integral to making research feasible and meaningful in decision-making.

3. Systematic Nature: Good research is systematic, which adheres to a structured set of rules, following specific steps in a defined sequence. Systematic research encourages creative thinking while avoiding reliance on guesswork and intuition to reach conclusions.

4. Replicability: Scientific research designs, procedures, and results should be replicable. This ensures that anyone apart from the original researcher can assess their validity. Researchers can use or replicate results obtained by others, making the procedures and outcomes of the research both replicable and transmittable.

5. Validity and Verifiability: Good research involves precise observation and accurate description. The researcher selects reliable and valid instruments for data collection, employing statistical measures to portray results accurately. The conclusions drawn are correct and verifiable by both the researcher and others.

6. Theory and Principle Development: It contributes to formulating theories and principles, aiding accurate predictions about the variables under study. By making sound generalizations based on observed samples, researchers extend their findings beyond immediate situations, objects, or groups, formulating generalizations or theories about these factors.

1. What are the key characteristics of research report?

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

Last updated

5 March 2024

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From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

• What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

• Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

• Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

• How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

• Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive 

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Chapter 11: Presenting Your Research

Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Learning Objectives

• Identify the major sections of an APA-style research report and the basic contents of each section.
• Plan and write an effective APA-style research report.

In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report , an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline. Here we consider each of these sections in detail, including what information it contains, how that information is formatted and organized, and tips for writing each section. At the end of this section is a sample APA-style research report that illustrates many of these principles.

Sections of a Research Report

Title page and abstract.

An APA-style research report begins with a  title page . The title is centred in the upper half of the page, with each important word capitalized. The title should clearly and concisely (in about 12 words or fewer) communicate the primary variables and research questions. This sometimes requires a main title followed by a subtitle that elaborates on the main title, in which case the main title and subtitle are separated by a colon. Here are some titles from recent issues of professional journals published by the American Psychological Association.

• Sex Differences in Coping Styles and Implications for Depressed Mood
• Effects of Aging and Divided Attention on Memory for Items and Their Contexts
• Computer-Assisted Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Child Anxiety: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial
• Virtual Driving and Risk Taking: Do Racing Games Increase Risk-Taking Cognitions, Affect, and Behaviour?

Below the title are the authors’ names and, on the next line, their institutional affiliation—the university or other institution where the authors worked when they conducted the research. As we have already seen, the authors are listed in an order that reflects their contribution to the research. When multiple authors have made equal contributions to the research, they often list their names alphabetically or in a randomly determined order.

In some areas of psychology, the titles of many empirical research reports are informal in a way that is perhaps best described as “cute.” They usually take the form of a play on words or a well-known expression that relates to the topic under study. Here are some examples from recent issues of the Journal Psychological Science .

• “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior”
• “Time Crawls: The Temporal Resolution of Infants’ Visual Attention”
• “Scent of a Woman: Men’s Testosterone Responses to Olfactory Ovulation Cues”
• “Apocalypse Soon?: Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs”
• “Serial vs. Parallel Processing: Sometimes They Look Like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but They Can (and Should) Be Distinguished”
• “How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Words: The Social Effects of Expressive Writing”

Individual researchers differ quite a bit in their preference for such titles. Some use them regularly, while others never use them. What might be some of the pros and cons of using cute article titles?

For articles that are being submitted for publication, the title page also includes an author note that lists the authors’ full institutional affiliations, any acknowledgments the authors wish to make to agencies that funded the research or to colleagues who commented on it, and contact information for the authors. For student papers that are not being submitted for publication—including theses—author notes are generally not necessary.

The  abstract  is a summary of the study. It is the second page of the manuscript and is headed with the word  Abstract . The first line is not indented. The abstract presents the research question, a summary of the method, the basic results, and the most important conclusions. Because the abstract is usually limited to about 200 words, it can be a challenge to write a good one.

Introduction

The  introduction  begins on the third page of the manuscript. The heading at the top of this page is the full title of the manuscript, with each important word capitalized as on the title page. The introduction includes three distinct subsections, although these are typically not identified by separate headings. The opening introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting, the literature review discusses relevant previous research, and the closing restates the research question and comments on the method used to answer it.

The Opening

The  opening , which is usually a paragraph or two in length, introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting. To capture the reader’s attention, researcher Daryl Bem recommends starting with general observations about the topic under study, expressed in ordinary language (not technical jargon)—observations that are about people and their behaviour (not about researchers or their research; Bem, 2003 [1] ). Concrete examples are often very useful here. According to Bem, this would be a poor way to begin a research report:

Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance received a great deal of attention during the latter part of the 20th century (p. 191)

The following would be much better:

The individual who holds two beliefs that are inconsistent with one another may feel uncomfortable. For example, the person who knows that he or she enjoys smoking but believes it to be unhealthy may experience discomfort arising from the inconsistency or disharmony between these two thoughts or cognitions. This feeling of discomfort was called cognitive dissonance by social psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), who suggested that individuals will be motivated to remove this dissonance in whatever way they can (p. 191).

After capturing the reader’s attention, the opening should go on to introduce the research question and explain why it is interesting. Will the answer fill a gap in the literature? Will it provide a test of an important theory? Does it have practical implications? Giving readers a clear sense of what the research is about and why they should care about it will motivate them to continue reading the literature review—and will help them make sense of it.

Breaking the Rules

Researcher Larry Jacoby reported several studies showing that a word that people see or hear repeatedly can seem more familiar even when they do not recall the repetitions—and that this tendency is especially pronounced among older adults. He opened his article with the following humourous anecdote:

A friend whose mother is suffering symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) tells the story of taking her mother to visit a nursing home, preliminary to her mother’s moving there. During an orientation meeting at the nursing home, the rules and regulations were explained, one of which regarded the dining room. The dining room was described as similar to a fine restaurant except that tipping was not required. The absence of tipping was a central theme in the orientation lecture, mentioned frequently to emphasize the quality of care along with the advantages of having paid in advance. At the end of the meeting, the friend’s mother was asked whether she had any questions. She replied that she only had one question: “Should I tip?” (Jacoby, 1999, p. 3)

Although both humour and personal anecdotes are generally discouraged in APA-style writing, this example is a highly effective way to start because it both engages the reader and provides an excellent real-world example of the topic under study.

The Literature Review

Immediately after the opening comes the  literature review , which describes relevant previous research on the topic and can be anywhere from several paragraphs to several pages in length. However, the literature review is not simply a list of past studies. Instead, it constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing. By the end of the literature review, readers should be convinced that the research question makes sense and that the present study is a logical next step in the ongoing research process.

Like any effective argument, the literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that demonstrate it, then describing two or more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more of the theories. Or it might describe one phenomenon, then describe another phenomenon that seems inconsistent with the first one, then propose a theory that resolves the inconsistency, and finally present a hypothesis to test that theory. In applied research, it might describe a phenomenon or theory, then describe how that phenomenon or theory applies to some important real-world situation, and finally suggest a way to test whether it does, in fact, apply to that situation.

Looking at the literature review in this way emphasizes a few things. First, it is extremely important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make, organized in the order that you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument, then, should be apparent from the outline itself. Second, it is important to emphasize the structure of your argument in your writing. One way to do this is to begin the literature review by summarizing your argument even before you begin to make it. “In this article, I will describe two apparently contradictory phenomena, present a new theory that has the potential to resolve the apparent contradiction, and finally present a novel hypothesis to test the theory.” Another way is to open each paragraph with a sentence that summarizes the main point of the paragraph and links it to the preceding points. These opening sentences provide the “transitions” that many beginning researchers have difficulty with. Instead of beginning a paragraph by launching into a description of a previous study, such as “Williams (2004) found that…,” it is better to start by indicating something about why you are describing this particular study. Here are some simple examples:

Another example of this phenomenon comes from the work of Williams (2004).

Williams (2004) offers one explanation of this phenomenon.

An alternative perspective has been provided by Williams (2004).

We used a method based on the one used by Williams (2004).

Finally, remember that your goal is to construct an argument for why your research question is interesting and worth addressing—not necessarily why your favourite answer to it is correct. In other words, your literature review must be balanced. If you want to emphasize the generality of a phenomenon, then of course you should discuss various studies that have demonstrated it. However, if there are other studies that have failed to demonstrate it, you should discuss them too. Or if you are proposing a new theory, then of course you should discuss findings that are consistent with that theory. However, if there are other findings that are inconsistent with it, again, you should discuss them too. It is acceptable to argue that the  balance  of the research supports the existence of a phenomenon or is consistent with a theory (and that is usually the best that researchers in psychology can hope for), but it is not acceptable to  ignore contradictory evidence. Besides, a large part of what makes a research question interesting is uncertainty about its answer.

The Closing

The  closing  of the introduction—typically the final paragraph or two—usually includes two important elements. The first is a clear statement of the main research question or hypothesis. This statement tends to be more formal and precise than in the opening and is often expressed in terms of operational definitions of the key variables. The second is a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness. Here, for example, is how Darley and Latané (1968) [2] concluded the introduction to their classic article on the bystander effect:

These considerations lead to the hypothesis that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less likely, or the more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To test this proposition it would be necessary to create a situation in which a realistic “emergency” could plausibly occur. Each subject should also be blocked from communicating with others to prevent his getting information about their behaviour during the emergency. Finally, the experimental situation should allow for the assessment of the speed and frequency of the subjects’ reaction to the emergency. The experiment reported below attempted to fulfill these conditions. (p. 378)

Thus the introduction leads smoothly into the next major section of the article—the method section.

The  method section  is where you describe how you conducted your study. An important principle for writing a method section is that it should be clear and detailed enough that other researchers could replicate the study by following your “recipe.” This means that it must describe all the important elements of the study—basic demographic characteristics of the participants, how they were recruited, whether they were randomly assigned, how the variables were manipulated or measured, how counterbalancing was accomplished, and so on. At the same time, it should avoid irrelevant details such as the fact that the study was conducted in Classroom 37B of the Industrial Technology Building or that the questionnaire was double-sided and completed using pencils.

The method section begins immediately after the introduction ends with the heading “Method” (not “Methods”) centred on the page. Immediately after this is the subheading “Participants,” left justified and in italics. The participants subsection indicates how many participants there were, the number of women and men, some indication of their age, other demographics that may be relevant to the study, and how they were recruited, including any incentives given for participation.

After the participants section, the structure can vary a bit. Figure 11.1 shows three common approaches. In the first, the participants section is followed by a design and procedure subsection, which describes the rest of the method. This works well for methods that are relatively simple and can be described adequately in a few paragraphs. In the second approach, the participants section is followed by separate design and procedure subsections. This works well when both the design and the procedure are relatively complicated and each requires multiple paragraphs.

What is the difference between design and procedure? The design of a study is its overall structure. What were the independent and dependent variables? Was the independent variable manipulated, and if so, was it manipulated between or within subjects? How were the variables operationally defined? The procedure is how the study was carried out. It often works well to describe the procedure in terms of what the participants did rather than what the researchers did. For example, the participants gave their informed consent, read a set of instructions, completed a block of four practice trials, completed a block of 20 test trials, completed two questionnaires, and were debriefed and excused.

In the third basic way to organize a method section, the participants subsection is followed by a materials subsection before the design and procedure subsections. This works well when there are complicated materials to describe. This might mean multiple questionnaires, written vignettes that participants read and respond to, perceptual stimuli, and so on. The heading of this subsection can be modified to reflect its content. Instead of “Materials,” it can be “Questionnaires,” “Stimuli,” and so on.

The  results section  is where you present the main results of the study, including the results of the statistical analyses. Although it does not include the raw data—individual participants’ responses or scores—researchers should save their raw data and make them available to other researchers who request them. Several journals now encourage the open sharing of raw data online.

Although there are no standard subsections, it is still important for the results section to be logically organized. Typically it begins with certain preliminary issues. One is whether any participants or responses were excluded from the analyses and why. The rationale for excluding data should be described clearly so that other researchers can decide whether it is appropriate. A second preliminary issue is how multiple responses were combined to produce the primary variables in the analyses. For example, if participants rated the attractiveness of 20 stimulus people, you might have to explain that you began by computing the mean attractiveness rating for each participant. Or if they recalled as many items as they could from study list of 20 words, did you count the number correctly recalled, compute the percentage correctly recalled, or perhaps compute the number correct minus the number incorrect? A third preliminary issue is the reliability of the measures. This is where you would present test-retest correlations, Cronbach’s α, or other statistics to show that the measures are consistent across time and across items. A final preliminary issue is whether the manipulation was successful. This is where you would report the results of any manipulation checks.

The results section should then tackle the primary research questions, one at a time. Again, there should be a clear organization. One approach would be to answer the most general questions and then proceed to answer more specific ones. Another would be to answer the main question first and then to answer secondary ones. Regardless, Bem (2003) [3] suggests the following basic structure for discussing each new result:

• Remind the reader of the research question.
• Give the answer to the research question in words.
• Present the relevant statistics.
• Qualify the answer if necessary.
• Summarize the result.

Notice that only Step 3 necessarily involves numbers. The rest of the steps involve presenting the research question and the answer to it in words. In fact, the basic results should be clear even to a reader who skips over the numbers.

The  discussion  is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some combination of the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Theoretical implications
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide support for any existing theories? If not, how  can  they be explained? Although you do not have to provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom, to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Perhaps the manipulation was not very effective or the measures not very reliable. Perhaps there is some evidence that participants did not fully understand their task or that they were suspicious of the intent of the researchers. Now is the time to discuss these issues and how they might have affected the results. But do not overdo it. All studies have limitations, and most readers will understand that a different sample or different measures might have produced different results. Unless there is good reason to think they  would have, however, there is no reason to mention these routine issues. Instead, pick two or three limitations that seem like they could have influenced the results, explain how they could have influenced the results, and suggest ways to deal with them.

Most discussions end with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original research question, what will it take to do so? What  new  research questions has the study raised? This part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question, suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

Finally, some researchers are quite good at ending their articles with a sweeping or thought-provoking conclusion. Darley and Latané (1968) [4] , for example, ended their article on the bystander effect by discussing the idea that whether people help others may depend more on the situation than on their personalities. Their final sentence is, “If people understand the situational forces that can make them hesitate to intervene, they may better overcome them” (p. 383). However, this kind of ending can be difficult to pull off. It can sound overreaching or just banal and end up detracting from the overall impact of the article. It is often better simply to end when you have made your final point (although you should avoid ending on a limitation).

The references section begins on a new page with the heading “References” centred at the top of the page. All references cited in the text are then listed in the format presented earlier. They are listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If two sources have the same first author, they are listed alphabetically by the last name of the second author. If all the authors are the same, then they are listed chronologically by the year of publication. Everything in the reference list is double-spaced both within and between references.

Appendices, Tables, and Figures

Appendices, tables, and figures come after the references. An  appendix  is appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections. An appendix could be used to present lists of stimulus words, questionnaire items, detailed descriptions of special equipment or unusual statistical analyses, or references to the studies that are included in a meta-analysis. Each appendix begins on a new page. If there is only one, the heading is “Appendix,” centred at the top of the page. If there is more than one, the headings are “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on, and they appear in the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

After any appendices come tables and then figures. Tables and figures are both used to present results. Figures can also be used to illustrate theories (e.g., in the form of a flowchart), display stimuli, outline procedures, and present many other kinds of information. Each table and figure appears on its own page. Tables are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on). Figures are numbered the same way (“Figure 1,” “Figure 2,” and so on). A brief explanatory title, with the important words capitalized, appears above each table. Each figure is given a brief explanatory caption, where (aside from proper nouns or names) only the first word of each sentence is capitalized. More details on preparing APA-style tables and figures are presented later in the book.

Sample APA-Style Research Report

Figures 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 show some sample pages from an APA-style empirical research report originally written by undergraduate student Tomoe Suyama at California State University, Fresno. The main purpose of these figures is to illustrate the basic organization and formatting of an APA-style empirical research report, although many high-level and low-level style conventions can be seen here too.

Key Takeaways

• An APA-style empirical research report consists of several standard sections. The main ones are the abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and references.
• The introduction consists of an opening that presents the research question, a literature review that describes previous research on the topic, and a closing that restates the research question and comments on the method. The literature review constitutes an argument for why the current study is worth doing.
• The method section describes the method in enough detail that another researcher could replicate the study. At a minimum, it consists of a participants subsection and a design and procedure subsection.
• The results section describes the results in an organized fashion. Each primary result is presented in terms of statistical results but also explained in words.
• The discussion typically summarizes the study, discusses theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for further research.
• Practice: Look through an issue of a general interest professional journal (e.g.,  Psychological Science ). Read the opening of the first five articles and rate the effectiveness of each one from 1 ( very ineffective ) to 5 ( very effective ). Write a sentence or two explaining each rating.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and identify where the opening, literature review, and closing of the introduction begin and end.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and highlight in a different colour each of the following elements in the discussion: summary, theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

Long Descriptions

Figure 11.1 long description: Table showing three ways of organizing an APA-style method section.

In the simple method, there are two subheadings: “Participants” (which might begin “The participants were…”) and “Design and procedure” (which might begin “There were three conditions…”).

In the typical method, there are three subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”).

In the complex method, there are four subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Materials” (“The stimuli were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”). [Return to Figure 11.1]

• Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.),  The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist  (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ↵
• Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4 , 377–383. ↵

A type of research article which describes one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors.

The page at the beginning of an APA-style research report containing the title of the article, the authors’ names, and their institutional affiliation.

A summary of a research study.

The third page of a manuscript containing the research question, the literature review, and comments about how to answer the research question.

An introduction to the research question and explanation for why this question is interesting.

A description of relevant previous research on the topic being discusses and an argument for why the research is worth addressing.

The end of the introduction, where the research question is reiterated and the method is commented upon.

The section of a research report where the method used to conduct the study is described.

The main results of the study, including the results from statistical analyses, are presented in a research article.

Section of a research report that summarizes the study's results and interprets them by referring back to the study's theoretical background.

Part of a research report which contains supplemental material.

Research Methods in Psychology - 2nd Canadian Edition Copyright © 2015 by Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, & I-Chant A. Chiang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

• Background/Introduction
• Implemented Methods
• Results based on Analysis
• Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

• Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
• Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
• Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

• Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
• Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

• Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
• Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
• Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
• Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

• Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
• Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
• Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
• Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

• Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
• The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
• Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
• Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
• Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
• Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Research reports

This resource will help you identify the common elements and basic format of a research report.

Research reports generally follow a similar structure and have common elements, each with a particular purpose. Learn more about each of these elements below.

Common elements of reports

Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work. For example:  Measurement of water around Station Pier.

An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the results.

The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods you have used. Introductions generally include:

• The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic worth investigating?
• Key terms and definitions.
• An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test.

Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review should be a selection of carefully organised, focused and relevant literature that develops a narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

• What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?
• What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
• Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
• What further research is needed? The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and supports your research questions and methodology.

The review is not just a summary of all you have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen methodology and research questions.

The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can understand and replicate your approach.

You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.

This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

• Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
• Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise, amplify or complement it.
• Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
• Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

• To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
• To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
• Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
• On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
• Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?

Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings. To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make. For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for teachers?

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.

Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such materials include:

• Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
• Background reports.
• Detailed calculations.

Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labelled with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report.

Appendices are placed at the end of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

Fi nal ti p

While there are many common elements to research reports, it’s always best to double check the exact requirements for your task. You may find that you don’t need some sections, can combine others or have specific requirements about referencing, formatting or word limits.

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Section 1- Evidence-based practice (EBP)

Chapter 6: Components of a Research Report

Components of a research report.

Partido, B.B.

Elements of  research report

The research report contains four main areas:

• Introduction – What is the issue? What is known? What is not known? What are you trying to find out? This sections ends with the purpose and specific aims of the study.
• Methods – The recipe for the study. If someone wanted to perform the same study, what information would they need? How will you answer your research question? This part usually contains subheadings: Participants, Instruments, Procedures, Data Analysis,
• Results – What was found? This is organized by specific aims and provides the results of the statistical analysis.
• Discussion – How do the results fit in with the existing  literature? What were the limitations and areas of future research?

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Research Report
• Post last modified: 11 January 2022
• Reading time: 25 mins read
• Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

• 1 What is Research Report?
• 2 Research Report Definition
• 3.1 Preliminary Part
• 3.2 Introduction of the Report
• 3.3 Review of Literature
• 3.4 The Research Methodology
• 3.5 Results
• 3.6 Concluding Remarks
• 3.7 Bibliography
• 4 Significance of Report Writing
• 5 Qualities of Good Report
• 6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
• 6.2 Research outline
• 6.3 Preparation of rough draft
• 6.4 Rewriting and polishing
• 6.5 Writing the final draft
• 7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
• 8.1.1 Technical Report
• 8.1.2 Popular Report
• 8.2.1 Written Report
• 8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

• Acknowledgement
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs
• Introduction
• Background of the research study
• Statement of the problem
• Brief outline of the chapters
• Books review
• Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
• Review of articles published in leading newspapers
• Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
• Articles on authorised websites
• A broad conclusion and indications for further research
• The theoretical framework (variables)
• Model / hypothesis
• Instruments for data collection
• Data collection
• Pilot study
• Processing of data
• Hypothesis / model testing
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Tables and figures
• Conclusions
• Shortcomings
• Suggestions to the problems
• Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

• A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
• Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
• The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
• The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
• The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

• Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
• It should not be dull and complicated.
• It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
• It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
• The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
• There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
• It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
• Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
• It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
• The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
• A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
• It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
• Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
• When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
• Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

• Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages. 
• Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report. 
• Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data. 
• Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks 
• Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented. 
• Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research. 
• Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research. 
• Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations. 
• Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

• Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
• Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
• Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
• Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
• Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
• Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

• Writtenreport
• Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

Business Ethics

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• What is Ethics?
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• Ethical Issues in Finance and Accounting
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Strategic Management

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• Mission Statement
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• What is SWOT Analysis?
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Top 11 characteristics of a good report.

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This article throws light upon the top eleven characteristics of a good report. The characteristics are: 1. Simplicity 2. Clarity 3. Brevity 4. Positivity 5. Punctuation 6. Approach 7. Readability 8. Accuracy 9. Logical Sequence 10. Proper Form 11. Presentation.

Characteristic # 1. Simplicity:

The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a technical report there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be presented to laymen.

Characteristic # 2. Clarity:

The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.

Characteristic # 3. Brevity:

A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A report is not an essay.

Characteristic # 4. Positivity:

As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be done and not what should not be done.

Characteristic # 5. Punctuation :

Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be misunder­stood or misrepresented.

Characteristic # 6. Approach:

There are two types of approaches: (a) Per­son—When a report is written based on personal enquiry or obser­vations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the first person and in direct speech, (b) Impersonal—When a report is prepared as a source of information and when it is merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person and in indirect speech.

Characteristic # 7. Readability:

The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter can be written differ­ently for different classes of readers.

Characteristic # 8. Accuracy:

A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with personal feelings of the writer.

Characteristic # 9. Logical Sequence:

The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.

Characteristic # 10. Proper Form:

A report must be in the proper form. Some­times there are statutory forms to follow.

Characteristic # 11. Presentation:

A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colourful Annual Reports.

Related Articles:

• Principles of a Good Research Report
• Report Control System in Large Organisations | Preparation of a Report

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Understanding the Characteristics of a Good Report

Imagine the impact a well-structured, engaging, and informative report can have on your organization’s decision-making process. A good report is more than just a collection of facts and figures – it’s a powerful communication tool that can shape the future of a company. In this blog post, we will explore the characteristics of a good report and how they contribute to effective communication. Let’s dive in and unlock the secrets to creating compelling reports that drive results.

Key Takeaways

A successful report must possess clarity, accuracy, conciseness, coherence, and relevance to effectively facilitate informed decision-making.

Data visualization is essential for good reports in order to effectively convey complex data.

Auditors are responsible for verifying the correctness and reliability of financial information to ensure quality reporting.

Essential Elements of a High-Quality Report

A high-quality report is like a well-crafted symphony, where each element harmoniously blends with the others to create a masterpiece. The five essential characteristics of a good report are:

Conciseness

These components contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter, allowing stakeholders to make informed decisions based on reliable and credible information.

Have you ever read a report that left you more confused than enlightened? Clarity is the cornerstone of a good report, ensuring that the information is easily understood by the reader. A clear report eliminates ambiguity and uses language that is straightforward and succinct. This is particularly important when presenting a company’s financial position, as unclear information can lead to misinterpretation and costly mistakes.

To further elaborate, clarity in a report also involves the use of clear headings and subheadings that guide the reader through the document. It includes the use of bullet points and numbered lists to present information in an organized and digestible way. It also means avoiding overly complex sentences and paragraphs that can be difficult to follow.

In addition, clear reports also make good use of visual aids such as charts, graphs, and diagrams. These can help to break up large blocks of text and can often communicate information more effectively than words alone. They can also make the report more engaging and pleasing to the eye.

Furthermore, a clear report is one that is free of errors. This includes not only factual errors but also grammatical errors and typos. Such mistakes can detract from the clarity of the report and can give the impression that the report is not reliable or trustworthy.

In sum, clarity is about more than just using simple language. It’s about presenting information in a way that is organized, engaging, and error-free, making the report as easy to understand as possible.

Clear reports favor straightforward language, steer clear of jargon, and incorporate visual aids such as graphs and charts when suitable. These methods not only enhance the reader’s understanding of the company’s financial reports but also facilitate the decision-making process by presenting information in a digestible manner.

Imagine the chaos that would ensue if a company’s financial statements were riddled with inaccuracies and errors.

Accuracy is crucial in a report, as it ensures that the information presented is reliable and trustworthy. Inaccurate information can lead to erroneous decisions, jeopardizing the attainment of the organization’s objectives.

In the context of audit reports, accuracy ensures that the financial statements are presented fairly and accurately, allowing stakeholders to make informed decisions based on dependable data. Accuracy in a report requires meticulous fact-checking, thorough evidence gathering, and obtaining reasonable assurance of fair financial statement presentation. These measures not only ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the report but also contribute to the formation of a reliable auditor’s opinion.

Have you ever struggled through a lengthy report, only to lose interest halfway through? Conciseness is an essential characteristic of a good report, helping to maintain the reader’s engagement and focus on key points without unnecessary information. A concise report is like a well-tailored suit – it fits perfectly and communicates the desired message with precision.

Concise reports:

Employ active voice

Avoid technical language

Utilize plain language to effectively communicate the message

Avoid reiteration

Focus on the essential points

Allow your reader to grasp the company’s financial position without being overwhelmed by excessive details.

A report with a disjointed flow and inconsistent formatting is like trying to navigate a maze – it’s confusing and disorienting. Coherence in a report ensures that the information flows logically and consistently, making it easier for the reader to follow the narrative. A coherent report is like a well-planned journey, where each step follows the previous one, leading the reader to a clear destination.

A coherent report leverages the following practices for organization and readability:

Use headings and subheadings to clearly structure the report.

Maintain consistent formatting throughout the document.

Utilize transitions between sections to aid the reader’s comprehension.

By adopting these practices and following the applicable financial reporting framework, you’ll create a report that is structured, easy to navigate, and effectively communicates the company’s financial position.

Furthermore, these practices also ensure that your report is not just a dry presentation of facts and figures, but a compelling narrative that engages the reader. It will not only provide valuable insights into the company’s financial status but also highlight key trends and patterns, facilitating a deeper understanding of the company’s performance.

This way, the report becomes a powerful tool for decision-making, enabling stakeholders to make well-informed decisions that can shape the future of the company.

Including irrelevant information in a report is like adding unnecessary ingredients to a recipe – it detracts from the overall flavor and confuses the palate.

Relevance in a report ensures that the information presented is directly related to the topic and serves a purpose in the overall narrative. A relevant report is like a well-curated art exhibition – each piece contributes to the overall theme and enhances the viewer’s experience.

A relevant report prioritizes accurate data, and sources that directly relate to the topic, and presents information in a logical sequence. By adhering to these principles, you’ll create a report that effectively communicates the company’s financial position, allowing stakeholders to make informed decisions based on pertinent information.

The Role of Data Visualization in Good Reports

Data visualization is like a powerful telescope that brings the stars within reach, transforming complex information into easily digestible visuals. In good reports, data visualization plays a significant role, as it helps to convey intricate data in a comprehensible and effective manner.

Incorporating visuals like charts, graphs, and maps into data visualization enhances reporting efficacy, making the information more digestible and engaging for the reader.

Choosing the Right Visuals

Selecting the right visuals for a report is like choosing the perfect outfit for an important event – it must be appropriate, appealing, and effectively communicate your message. The right visuals not only enhance the overall presentation of the report but also ensure that the data is effectively communicated to the audience.

When selecting visuals, consider the audience, the data being presented, and the format that best suits the information. For example, bar graphs are ideal for comparing quantities, while pie charts are suitable for illustrating proportions. By choosing the right visuals, you’ll create a report that is both engaging and informative, allowing the reader to quickly discern essential insights and trends.

Design Principles for Effective Visuals

Design principles for effective visuals are like the foundation of a sturdy building – they provide structure, stability, and aesthetic appeal.

In a report, adhering to design principles ensures that the visuals enhance the message and facilitate understanding. Effective visuals are like a well-crafted painting – they capture the viewer’s attention and convey a clear message.

Design principles for effective visuals encompass:

Simplicity: Easy to understand and focuses on the key points

Consistency: Maintains the same style and formatting throughout the report

Clarity: Information is easily interpreted, allowing the reader to quickly identify patterns and trends.

By applying these design principles, you’ll create visuals that not only enhance the report’s content but also facilitate effective communication of the data.

The Auditor’s Role in Ensuring Quality Reporting

Auditors are like the watchful guardians of a company’s financial health, providing objective opinions on its financial status and compliance with regulations. Their role in ensuring quality reporting is crucial, as they:

Verify the accuracy and reliability of the financial information presented in the report

Identify any potential errors or irregularities

Assess the company’s internal controls and risk management processes

Provide recommendations for improvement

Help maintain transparency and accountability in financial reporting

Auditors, by complying with generally accepted accounting principles and generally accepted auditing standards, bolster the credibility of financial statements and aid stakeholders in making informed decisions.

Types of Audit Opinions

Imagine an art critic evaluating a gallery – their opinion will vary depending on the quality and presentation of the artwork. Similarly, auditors provide different types of audit reports based on their assessment of a company’s financial reporting. These opinions include:

Clean (unqualified) opinion

Qualified opinion

Disclaimer opinion

Adverse opinion

Each auditor’s opinion reflects the evaluation of the organization’s financial statements and adherence to regulations, providing a thorough analysis of the company’s financial statements.

This analysis is the result of an extensive audit process that includes examining the company’s financial records, interviewing key personnel, and assessing internal controls. The auditor’s opinion is not just a simple conclusion but a comprehensive evaluation that takes into account the company’s operational environment, its internal control systems, and its adherence to relevant laws and regulations.

This rigorous process ensures that the auditor’s opinion is based on a complete and accurate view of the company’s financial health, providing stakeholders with valuable insights that can guide their decision-making process.

A clean opinion signifies satisfactory financial reporting, while a qualified opinion indicates potential issues or deviations from generally accepted accounting principles. A disclaimer of opinion is issued when the auditor is unable to provide any opinion on the financial statements, and an adverse opinion indicates substantial misstatements and potential fraud.

Understanding these audit opinion types empowers stakeholders to assess a company’s financial position more accurately and make knowledgeable decisions.

The Auditor’s Responsibility for Quality Reporting

Auditors are like skilled detectives, meticulously examining a company’s financial records to uncover inaccuracies and inconsistencies. Their responsibility for quality reporting involves:

Verifying the correctness and reliability of the financial information presented in the audit report

Adopting a quality control system

Being vigilant towards financial reporting areas prone to fraudulent schemes

These measures can enhance an auditor’s contribution to the credibility of financial statements and their independent opinion on the independent auditor’s report. By meticulously verifying the accuracy of the financial data, identifying potential discrepancies, and maintaining vigilance towards areas prone to fraudulent activities, auditors play a vital role in ensuring the integrity of financial reporting.

The auditor’s independent opinion serves as a testament to the accuracy and reliability of the financial statements, thereby fostering trust among stakeholders and facilitating informed decision-making.

This role of the auditor, coupled with their adherence to stringent auditing standards, significantly bolsters the credibility of the financial statements, making them a vital asset in the eyes of the stakeholders.

Additionally, auditors possess expertise in:

Evaluating internal systems and processes for collecting, analyzing, and reporting information

Providing an impartial view of the financial report

Bolstering the credibility of the financial statements

Their role in ensuring quality reporting is significant, as they help organizations make well-informed decisions and sustain trust with their stakeholders.

Case Study: A Well-Structured Report Example

Let’s explore a case study of a well-structured report that effectively incorporates the key characteristics of a good report. This case study will serve as a practical example, demonstrating how these principles and characteristics are applied in a real-world context.

It will provide a comprehensive understanding of how clarity, accuracy, conciseness, coherence, and relevance can be seamlessly integrated into a report to produce a compelling and informative document. We will delve into the specifics of how each characteristic is manifested in the report, highlighting the strategies used to ensure the report is clear, accurate, concise, coherent, and relevant. This examination of a well-structured report will provide you with valuable insights and practical techniques that you can apply to your own report-writing endeavors.

Imagine a tech company that releases an annual report to its stakeholders, providing a comprehensive overview of its financial performance and achievements throughout the year. The report is organized into sections, including an executive summary, financial statements, and a detailed analysis of the company’s growth and challenges.

The report exhibits the following qualities in its presentation:

The language is straightforward and easy to understand, with graphs and charts to support the financial data. The information presented is accurate, concise, and directly related to the company’s financial position. The report flows logically from one section to the next, allowing the reader to easily follow the narrative and understand the company’s financial position.

This case study demonstrates the power of a well-structured report in effectively communicating complex information to stakeholders. The incorporation of key characteristics of a good report allowed the tech company to offer a comprehensive and engaging performance overview, enabling stakeholders to make informed decisions grounded in reliable and credible information.

Summary and Conclusion

In summary, high-quality reporting is essential for providing accurate and reliable information to stakeholders, allowing organizations to make informed decisions and sustain trust. The characteristics of a good report – clarity, accuracy, conciseness, coherence, and relevance – contribute to effective communication and facilitate comprehension of the subject matter. By incorporating these principles in your own report writing, you’ll create compelling reports that drive results and shape the future of your organization. Remember, a well-crafted report is like a powerful telescope, bringing complex information within reach and transforming it into easily digestible insights.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the principles of a good report.

The principles of a good report include accuracy, selectiveness, comprehensiveness, cost consideration, objectivity, preciseness, simplicity, and the use of proper language. Sentences should be short and clear, jargon should be avoided, and the text should be broken up into sections to make it easier to read.

What are the 4 types of audit reports?

Audit reports come in four varieties: Clean Report or Unqualified Opinion, Qualified Report or Qualified Opinion, Disclaimer Report or Disclaimer of Opinion, and Adverse Audit Report or Adverse Opinion.

What is an audit report and examples?

An audit report is an independent opinion from an auditor about whether the company’s financial statements are in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles and free from material misstatement. It includes opinions on the Income Statement, Balance Sheet, Cashflows, and Shareholders’ equity statement, and is usually found in companies’ annual reports just before the financial page.

What is the purpose of an audit report?

The purpose of an audit report is to provide assurance that the financial statements presented by a company are in compliance with GAAP and free from material misstatement.

What are the 5 characteristics of a report?

A report should be clear, accurate, concise, coherent, and relevant for it to be effective.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Writing up a Research Report

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Barros, L. O. (2016). The only academic phrasebook you’ll ever need. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

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Field, A. (2016). An adventure in statistics. The reality enigma . SAGE.

Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. Retrieved June 09, 2021, from https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ .

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE.

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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Reporting Participant Characteristics in a Research Paper

A report on a scientific study using human participants will include a description of the participant characteristics. This is included as a subsection of the “Methods” section, usually called “Participants” or “Participant Characteristics.” The purpose is to give readers information on the number and type of study participants, as a way of clarifying to whom the study findings apply and shedding light on the generalizability of the findings as well as any possible limitations. Accurate reporting is needed for replication studies that might be carried out in the future.

The “Participants” subsection should be fairly short and should tell readers about the population pool, how many participants were included in the study sample, and what kind of sample they represent, such as random, snowball, etc. There is no need to give a lengthy description of the method used to select or recruit the participants, as these topics belong in a separate “Procedures” subsection that is also under “Methods.” The subsection on “Participant Characteristics” only needs to provide facts on the participants themselves.

Report the participants’ genders (how many male and female participants) and ages (the age range and, if appropriate, the standard deviation). In particular, if you are writing for an international audience, specify the country and region or cities where the participants lived. If the study invited only participants with certain characteristics, report this, too. For example, tell readers if the participants all had autism, were left-handed, or had participated in sports within the past year.

Related: Finished preparing the methods sections for your research paper ? Find out why the “Methods” section is so important now!

Next, use your judgment to identify other pieces of information that are relevant to the study. For a detailed tutorial on reporting “Participant Characteristics,” see Alice Frye’s “Method Section: Describing participants.” Frye reminds authors to mention if only people with certain characteristics or backgrounds were included in the study. Did all the participants work at the same company? Were the students at the same school? Did they represent a range of socioeconomic backgrounds? Did they come from both urban and rural backgrounds? Were they physically and emotionally healthy? Similarly, mention if the study sample excluded people with certain characteristics.

If you are going to examine any participant characteristics as factors in the analysis, include a description of these. For instance, if you plan to examine the influence of teachers’ years of experience on their attitude toward new technology, then you should report the range of the teachers’ years of experience. If you plan to study how children’s socioeconomic level relates to their test scores, you should briefly mention that the children in the sample came from low, middle, and high-income backgrounds. Finally, mention whether the participants participated voluntarily. Include information on whether they gave informed consent (if the participants were children, mention that their parents consented to their participation). Also, mention if the participants received any sort of compensation or benefit for their participation, such as money or course credit.

Case Studies and Qualitative Reports

Case studies and qualitative reports may have only a few participants or even a single participant. If there is space to do so, you can write a brief background of each participant in the “Participants” section and include relevant information on the participant’s birthplace, current place of residence, language, and any life experience that is relevant to the study theme. If you have permission to use the participant’s name, do so. Otherwise, use a different name and add a note to readers that the name is a pseudonym. Alternatively, you might label the participants with numbers (e.g., Student 1, Student 2) or letters (e.g., Doctor A, Doctor B, etc.), or use initials to identify them (e.g., KY, JM).

Use Past Tense

Remember to use past tense when writing the “Participants” section . This is because you are describing what the participants’ characteristics were at the time of data collection . By the time your article is published, the participants’ characteristics may have changed. For example, they may be a year older and have more work experience. Their socioeconomic level may have changed since the study. In some cases, participants may even have passed away. While characteristics like gender and race are either unlikely or impossible to change, the whole section is written in the past tense to maintain a consistent style and to avoid making unsupported claims about what the participants’ current status is.

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5 Characteristics of a Research Report

exist certain characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of academic texts. In that sense, academic writing refers to a style of expression that exhibits some distinctive features.

Among them is the use of a formal tone, the preference for the employment of the third person and the precise choice of words.

On the other hand, a research report is a written document that describes an investigative work from beginning to end. The specific details in a report vary according to the type of inquiry.

In addition, specific conventions for writing in each of the scientific disciplines must be taken into account.

Main characteristics of a research report

Clarity of thought and language.

Clarity of thought and language are among the most essential characteristics of a research report. It is important to highlight that research is a thought process that begins even before choosing the topic of study.

The reasoning power of the researcher is the effective tool for the decisions that must be made throughout the process. This process demands a patient, deep and alert thinking.

In this way, clear thinking results in clear writing. As far as possible, sentences should be simple and important points should be highlighted in small paragraphs. This clarity will make the reader easily understand what the author of the report wants to say.

Conceptual clarity

Another characteristic of a research report is its conceptual clarity. The concepts in a study must be defined and explained. In general, the explanations of a dictionary are almost never adequate for research purposes.

Therefore, it is important to be very explicit, even with that terminology that seems to be very simple. It must be taken into account that the same term may have different definitions in different areas of knowledge.

Explicit statement of the research problem

The research report must establish the problem studied explicitly and unambiguously. In the case of Quantitative investigation , the problem statement must specify the variables and the population subject to study.

This approach can be made in declarative or question form. For its part, in qualitative research, the approach is much broader and indicates the general purpose of the study.

Organization and format

Research reports must observe certain standards of format and organization. The details of the format (type and size of source, margins, form of citing sources, presentation of the list of references, among others), are regulated by each institution.

On the other hand, other characteristics, such as the general organization, reflect the expectations of the scientific community. In this way, it is expected that the report contains a general summary, introduction (with the background and motivation of the study), materials and methods, results and the analysis of results.

Use of citations and list of references

It is very common that when conducting an investigation the intellectual property of another author is used. In research reports, an appointment should be suitably included when referring, summarizing, paraphrasing or quoting from another source. There are multiple formats for dating styles, and they vary according to the academic discipline.

In addition, the report must contain the list of references. These offer all the necessary information to locate the sources.

• University of Southern California. (2017, December 08). Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Academic Writing Style. Retrieved on December 29, 2017, from libguides.usc.edu .
• Locke, L. F.; Silverman, St. J. and Spirduso, W.W. (2004). Reading and Understanding Research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
• Cauvery, R.; Sudha, U. K.; Girija, M. and Meena kshi, R. (2003). Research Methodology. New Delhi: S. Chand Publishing.
• Profetto-McGrath, J.; Polit, D. F. and Beck, C. T. (2010). Canadian Essentials of Nursing Research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Ary, D.; Jacobs, L. C. and Sorensen, C. (2009). Introduction to Research in Education. Belmond: Cengage Learning.
• Westervelt, M. (s / f). Research Paper Organization and Content. Retrieved on December 29, 2017, from seas.upenn.edu.
• Penn State University. (2017, October 12). In-text Citation. Retrieved on December 29, 2017, from guides.libraries.psu.edu.
• The University of Tennessee. (s / f). Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism. Retrieved on December 29, 2017, from guides.libraries.psu.edu.

Recent Posts

Research on Rock Failure Characteristics Under Combined Action of Uniaxial Stress and Explosion

28 Pages Posted: 13 Sep 2024

Zhibiao Guo

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Jingwei Gao

Blasting technology is widely used in deep rock mass engineering, and its influence on the integrity of surrounding rock and crack propagation is often affected by ground stress. The failure and propagation of cracks in borehole surrounding rock under the combined action of uniaxial stress and blasting load are comprehensively studied. Explosion test, mechanical analysis and finite element modeling are used to verify these results from the perspectives of numerical simulation and field engineering. The LS-DYNA numerical software is used to verify the explosion experiment, and the corrected constitutive model is used to simulate the effects of different uniaxial stresses on rock loosening and shaped charge blasting failure characteristics. The fracture network is processed by ImageJ software, and the fracture morphology and fractal characteristics of rock surface are analyzed. Then, the change of fracture mode of uniaxial stress-induced shaped charge blasting is analyzed by means of elastic mechanics, and the mechanism of directional crack propagation is discussed. The results show that the crack initiation occurs along the zone of maximum tensile stress around the hole during loosening blasting. The application of uniaxial stress can restrain the speed and length of crack growth and control the direction of radial crack growth. In the process of shaped charge blasting, with the increase of uniaxial stress, the damage in the shaped charge direction gradually forms a complete failure plane, which significantly inhibits the crack growth in the non-shaped charge direction. Finally, the test of cutting the top and relieving pressure of coalmine by shaped charge blasting has been carried out, and satisfactory results have been obtained. In deep rock mass engineering, it is suggested to use shaped charge blasting under anisotropic ground stress to achieve directional blasting, so as to better maintain the integrity of surrounding rock and obtain a smoother blasting surface.

Keywords: Uniaxial stress, Loose blasting, Shaped charge blasting, Surrounding rock damage, Crack propagation, Roof cutting and pressure relief

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

affiliation not provided to SSRN ( email )

No Address Available

Jingwei Gao (Contact Author)

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Characteristics and drivers of disability discrimination employment tribunal claims

Executive summary.

In recent years there has been an increase in the number of disability discrimination claims brought before employment tribunals. This report presents the findings from qualitative research exploring the characteristics and drivers of disability discrimination claims, to understand what might be driving this trend and why some of these claims are not being settled through Acas conciliation. As part of its duty to try to bring about a settlement in employment disputes, Acas offers 2 stages of conciliation: early conciliation, which takes place before the tribunal claim has started, and conciliation in any subsequent tribunal application, that is after the claim has been submitted but before the case has gone before the tribunal hearing.

The research consisted of 33 in-depth interviews: 21 with claimants and 12 with employers who had been party to a disability discrimination claim that was closed between July and December 2023. Participants were selected based on whether they had settled at tribunal conciliation (number=20) or gone to a full tribunal hearing (number=13). All the participants had progressed at least to the point of a tribunal claim being submitted; and they either did not take part in early conciliation, or else participated but reached an impasse at early conciliation. No interviews were carried out with employers and claimants from the same case, and all participants had represented themselves in the claim they were party to.

• What are the circumstances giving rise to disability discrimination claims?

There were a range of health conditions and disabilities represented in the sample, and some participants had multiple health conditions. There were 4 main types:

• physical health conditions or impairments, such as visual or mobility impairments or chronic health conditions 
• mental health conditions, such as anxiety or depression
• cognitive impairments, relating to processing information
• forms of neurodivergence such as ADHD, autism, dyslexia, and dyspraxia

It was not always possible from the interviews to determine the legally defined type of discrimination claimants alleged they had experienced, but examples occurred at all stages of the employment journey. This included reported discrimination at the point of recruitment, during employment, or at the end of the employment, for example during dismissal.

Across the sample, there were examples of disability discrimination claims being brought as the sole jurisdiction and under multiple jurisdictions, such as unfair dismissal alongside disability discrimination. In the latter case, some employers perceived that disability discrimination had been added on to the original claim to strengthen it. This perception could then shape how the employer responded.

How do employers handle disability discrimination complaints?

Attempts at internal resolution of disputes between the employer and employee failed where:

• there was a mismatch between the employer and claimant view of the underlying issues to the dispute, with the employer believing that poor performance or persistent absence was the issue, while the claimant felt the dispute related to their disability
• there were disputes about whether suitable reasonable adjustments had been put in place
• the employment relationship had completely broken down and the claimant lacked confidence in the employer's procedures for handling the matter internally

Overall, larger employers that were able to draw on experienced HR or legal departments felt more confident handling disability discrimination claims, especially where they had experienced them before. Smaller employers found it harder to stay on top of best practice, particularly with respect to managing disability issues in the workplace. Overall, claimants had relatively less knowledge about what constituted disability discrimination and were less able to assess the strength of the claim, and so would sometimes seek outside advice and support, for example from third sector advice or support organisations.

What are the drivers that lead to disability discrimination claims reaching an employment tribunal hearing?

There were several factors that could either drive a claim forward towards a tribunal hearing, or else lead to compromise or settlement. These factors operated at both early conciliation and the subsequent post-claim conciliation stages but came into play in different ways. These are illustrated in figure 2.

Some of these factors are outside of Acas's direct control, while others relate to the conciliation offer and are ones that Acas could shape. Factors that are outside Acas's control included:

• Timing issues: the strict time limits for making a tribunal claim (3 months minus 1 day in most cases) could act as a driver to proceed to a hearing, notwithstanding the provisions for early conciliation to 'stop the clock' on this deadline. Some claimants and employers felt that the 6-week maximum period for early conciliation was not long enough for meaningful engagement, particularly where a claimant's health fluctuated or deteriorated at the time of the claim, suggesting there would be more opportunity to settle were it longer. In contrast, the lengthy period between the submission of the tribunal claim and its eventual hearing could lead people to settle where new information emerged in this interval, their personal circumstances changed or where they simply wanted to get the process over with.
• Personal and circumstantial factors could also come into play, either in driving the case forward or in pushing towards settlement. For example, a decline in health or effects of ongoing stress could lead to claimants settling. In contrast, a strong sense of injustice could drive people towards a full hearing. For employers, the risk of financial and reputational costs could act as a factor supporting compromise and settlement.

In contrast, there are several factors related to the conciliation process that Acas may be able to influence:

• Parties' knowledge and understanding of conciliation and tribunal processes. The findings showed that some claimants and employers had limited understanding of what conciliation was and what it could achieve, meaning they were less likely to engage with it. Information was sometimes provided to claimants in formats that did not account for their disability and which they struggled to engage with. This included written information that was difficult for dyslexic people to engage with, or conversations that people with autism or ADHD found difficult without advance knowledge of topics of discussion.
• Parties' understanding of disability discrimination and expectations of the likely case outcome. Similarly, some claimants had unrealistic expectations of what the outcome of a full hearing might be (for example, in terms of the amount of compensation or ability to be reinstated in their role), or an unrealistic understanding of the strength of their claim and therefore an expectation they would win at tribunal. This was further reinforced where they could not find information to help them assess these issues, either on the Acas website or elsewhere. Claimants and employers said they found information dispersed across different websites, and sometimes fragmented, making it harder to use.
• Nature and consistency of conciliation. While there were examples of conciliators taking a proactive approach to resolving the case, some participants felt that the conciliation service had not supported them to come to an earlier resolution. This was because they felt communication had been too slow; the conciliation process did not help parties understand each other's positions; or the service did not offer enough signposting or advice (for example, on what constitutes disability discrimination, the nature of reasonable adjustments, and to aid assessment of the strength of a claim). Some claimants said they had found contact with Acas conciliators to be frustrating, because it did not give them the help and support they needed. However, service users sometimes had expectations beyond what the conciliation service can offer.

How can Acas improve handling of disability discrimination cases?

Based on these factors, participants made suggestions for how Acas could improve conciliation to support faster resolution of disability discrimination cases.

Improved communication to support understanding of the conciliation offer, including more tailored communication with disabled people and those experiencing ill-health. Some claimants described receiving written or oral information that was inaccessible to them due to their disability, and it was a clear that some participants lacked a clear understanding of what conciliation meant.

More regular and proactive contact with customers. At both early and later stages of conciliation, employers and claimants wanted conciliators to be more proactive in persuading both parties about the benefits of taking part in conciliation and bringing their positions closer together. For claimants who may be struggling with their mental health, having conciliators be more proactive and take responsibility for maintaining contact would have helped.

Improvements in the signposting of information, especially signposting to information that would allow customers to assess the strength of their case, suitable levels of compensation, and evidence of the benefits of earlier settlement would support earlier resolution. Without this kind of signposting, claimants could not see how Acas added value in helping them decide whether to settle or proceed to a hearing.

What else could Acas do to support faster resolution of disability discrimination cases?

Better direction to written advisory content for employers, employees and claimants is highlighted as an area where Acas could add value. In particular, information about reasonable adjustments, best practice in managing disability and performance, and summaries of relevant case law would all support better handling of disability discrimination cases. The fact that Acas already provides a wide range of written advice on many of these and other topics highlights the importance of when and how this type of advice is shared and the form this takes.

1. Introduction

This report presents the findings of qualitative research to understand the reasons behind the increasing number of disability discrimination claims proceeding to employment tribunal (see separate Appendices, section A). Data from both Acas and the employment tribunal show that there has been a recent rise in the number of cases of disability discrimination reaching tribunal. In this context, Acas commissioned the National Centre for Social Research (NatCen) to undertake research to understand why this rise in disability discrimination cases has occurred, and what they can do to try to resolve disability discrimination cases earlier, more quickly and more cost-effectively through conciliation.

1.1 The stages of conciliation

Acas has a duty to promote a settlement between the 2 parties who are subject to an employment dispute. It provides individual conciliation services that aim to resolve claims and prevent them from reaching tribunal. They do this by facilitating discussions between claimants and employers (or respondents ) to explore whether a resolution can be reached. These include early conciliation, and following submission of the tribunal claim, post-tribunal claim conciliation (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 shows the stages in handling a disability discrimination claim. This has 3 stages:

• Internal process
• The early conciliation stage
• The employment tribunal stage

The internal process stage contains 2 steps:

• The alleged incident
• The internal process

The early conciliation stage contains 3 steps:

• Claimant notifies Acas and is offered early conciliation, employee or employer can decline
• If both parties agree, they engage in early conciliation
• Settlement or early conciliation certificate issued by Acas

If settlement is not reached the dispute will progress to the employment tribunal stage. At this stage the tribunal claim is submitted and post-tribunal conciliation is offered to both parties. This can result in:

• Post-tribunal conciliation being declined
• Settlement being reached

Judicial mediation may be offered during the employment tribunal stage.

If no settlement is reached or conciliation is declined, there may be a full hearing or the case is withdrawn or struck out.

It is mandatory for employees wishing to lodge a disability discrimination tribunal claim to notify Acas first in most cases. This prompts Acas to offer early conciliation – a process whereby conciliated talks between employees and employers seek to resolve the dispute instead of it progressing to an employment tribunal. These talks take place for up to 6 weeks, during which time the deadline for submission of the tribunal claim is paused. Early conciliation is offered first to the claimant, who can accept or decline. If accepted, the employer can choose whether to engage or not. Where either party declines to take part in early conciliation, or if the talks reach an impasse, the claimant is issued with an early conciliation certificate, which allows them to proceed to make a claim to an employment tribunal, in most cases within 1 month.

Conciliation is offered again by Acas after the tribunal claim has been lodged by the claimant. As at early conciliation, conciliation here involves facilitating messaging between parties and helping write-up any ensuing settlement agreements. Post-tribunal claim conciliation can take place at any point up to the tribunal hearing, the wait time for which can be many months. As at early conciliation, participation remains voluntary. If a settlement is not reached, the case proceeds to the tribunal hearing, where the outcome is decided by the tribunal panel of employment judges.

1.2 Research questions

The research aims to explore the characteristics and drivers of the disability discrimination caseload, including how Acas might improve its conciliation services and advisory content to help resolve claims earlier. The research aims and sub questions were:

Aim 1: To better understand the reasons why disability discrimination claims that go to an employment tribunal are not resolved at the earlier early conciliation or tribunal conciliation stages.

• How do employers handle disability discrimination claims, and does this differ compared to other forms of alleged discrimination? How knowledgeable are employers about disability discrimination and their legal responsibilities?
• What are the drivers that lead to disability discrimination claims reaching a tribunal hearing?

Aim 2: To explore how Acas can positively influence the incidence and outcome of tribunal claims, through advice and conciliation.

• How can Acas improve conciliation handling of disability discrimination claims?
• What else could Acas do to support faster and earlier resolution of disability discrimination claims?

1.3 Methodology

This research consisted of 33 in-depth telephone or online interviews, including 21 with claimants and 12 with employers who were party to a disability discrimination claim that was closed between July and December 2023. The sample was drawn from Acas's management system, with Acas running an opt-out process. The sample only included unrepresented claimants and employers who had not settled during early conciliation, either because they did take part in early conciliation, or they reached an impasse.

The research used a purposive sampling approach, selecting participants based on whether they settled during post-tribunal claim conciliation (20) or proceeded to a full tribunal hearing (13). No interviews were carried out with employers and claimants party to the same claim. Other secondary criteria were also monitored to achieve diversity across the sample, including size and sector of employer; and whether the case involved single or multiple case jurisdictions. Further details about recruitment and the achieved sample are shown in the separate Appendices, section B.

Interviews lasted between 45 to 60 minutes and were conducted using a topic guide agreed with Acas (see separate appendices, section C). The interviews covered participants' journeys from the time an alleged incident of disability discrimination first arose, through their experiences of Acas conciliation, and their decisions about whether to try to resolve a claim at different stages in the process. In some cases, interviews were challenging because the topic was still very emotive for participants. Interviews were also rescheduled and adapted to reflect participants' health conditions.

All interviews were audio recorded with consent and transcribed verbatim. They were analysed using NatCen Framework approach, which uses case and theme-based analysis, while also ensuring findings are grounded fully in the data.

This report does not provide numerical findings, since qualitative research does not support statistical analysis. Instead, purposive sampling seeks to show range and diversity of experiences among research participants. Qualitative findings, therefore, provide in-depth insights into the range of views and experiences in the study. Verbatim quotes or case illustrations are used throughout the report to illustrate these views and experiences where pertinent.

1.4 Structure of the report

The report is divided into the following sections:

• Chapter 2 addresses research questions 1 and 2, describing the characteristics and natures of disability discrimination claims and exploring how employers respond
• Chapter 3 addresses research question 3, and centres on understanding the journeys of disability discrimination claims
• Chapter 4 addresses research questions 4 and 5, exploring participants' views on how Acas's conciliation services could be improved in the future, with a view to prevent more cases escalating to an employment tribunal

2. The nature of workplace disability discrimination cases, and how are they being handled by employers

This chapter explores the characteristics and nature of disability discrimination claims. This includes the types of health conditions included in the sample and the types of issues giving rise to claims. The interaction of disability discrimination with other jurisdictions, such as unfair dismissal or breach of contract is also discussed. This chapter also discusses how employers handled claims and tried to resolve them internally and why these attempts were not successful.

2.1 What are the nature and characteristics of disability discrimination claims?

2.1.1. what is the range of disability and health conditions at issue in disability discrimination claims.

The disabilities and health conditions discussed by participants in interviews fell into 4 categories:

• Physical disabilities and health conditions, such as speech impairments, visual impairments, mobility issues, and having a colostomy bag or stoma. Specific disabilities and health conditions included cerebral palsy, chronic fatigue syndrome, epilepsy, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), sickle cell anaemia, skin allergies and conditions, and spina bifida
• Mental health conditions, such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and psychosis
• Cognitive impairments, related to issues processing information
• Forms of neurodivergence, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, dyslexia, and dyspraxia

Some of the participants had multiple disabilities and health conditions, which interacted making their experiences of disability discrimination more complex, for example, a participant whose condition affected their movement and mobility, who was also dyslexic.

2.1.2. How do disability discrimination claims interact with other jurisdictions?

While some participants gave accounts of disability discrimination as the sole jurisdiction of their tribunal claim, others described claims they had brought under multiple jurisdictions – that is, involving other matters of employment law in addition to disability discrimination. These other jurisdictions included unfair dismissal, failure to allow statutory rest breaks, denial of flexible working requests, breach of contract, unpaid wages, and being victimised for trade union membership. Disability discrimination therefore interacted with these other jurisdictions in a range of ways, from being the primary reason for the claim, to being perceived as being added to one or more other jurisdictions.

3 patterns of claims were found:

• Disability discrimination as the sole jurisdiction. In these cases, disability discrimination was clearly the focus of the claim. For example, having a job offer withdrawn after disclosing a disability.
• Disability discrimination was not the initial focus of the claim but arose from the handling of the original claim. Sometimes poor handling by the employer or line manager of an initial claim that was not directly related to disability – for example, a request for flexible working to manage fluctuating mental health led to other conditions (anxiety and stress) being triggered or exacerbated by not being able to sometimes work from home, with other aspects of the claimant's health becoming part of the claim.
• Disability discrimination was added to other jurisdiction(s) at the outset of the claim. Here disability was presented by the claimant alongside one or more other issues, such as unfair dismissal – employers perceived such cases as having involved issues such as poor performance, excessive sickness absence, bad behaviour, poor discipline, or breach of contract. In some of these cases, employers suspected that a disability or health condition was only raised as a supplementary part of the claim at the point of the employee being dismissed, disciplined, or resigning. Some claimants said they were told a by a solicitor or support organisation to add disability discrimination to other jurisdictions. This was because the solicitor believed there may be a case of disability discrimination for the employer to answer, and that doing so would strengthen the claimant's case.

Notably, we did not find significant interaction between disability discrimination and other protected characteristics. However, some participants mentioned pregnancy, race, sex, and sexual orientation as another, unrelated part of their claim.

2.1.3. What types of issues are giving rise to disability discrimination claims?

Although it was not possible to tell from the interviews how each case may have been categorised under the Equality Act (2010), there were instances that were likely to be considered direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment, and victimisation. Issues tended to be linked to disagreements over what constituted reasonable adjustments; the management of sickness absences related to disability; and subsequent complaints, resignations, or dismissals.

The alleged incidents arose at different stages in employment. They occurred at the point of recruitment, during employment, and during investigations of alleged discrimination before or after dismissal:

During or after recruitment. Claimants cited examples where recruiters or employers failed to make reasonable adjustments to allow them to complete job applications verbally or carry out a job interview in an accessible way, such as through typing.

In one case, a claimant said an employer had withdrawn a job offer after finding out they were a wheelchair user. This was on the grounds that the employer determined they would not be able to do the job in a wheelchair.

During employment. Here, claimants reported that disability discrimination issues had arisen due to disagreements about reasonable adjustments, or where they felt harassed into returning to work too quickly after a period of sickness absence.

In some cases, claimants said their employer had refused to make reasonable adjustments because they did not see them as 'reasonable' or sufficiently connected to their job. For example, a claimant with ADHD explained that their employer did not agree that they needed more time to adjust to a new call handling system to prevent them making mistakes. Where reasonable adjustments were agreed, claimants felt employers were sometimes slow to implement them, or needed to be constantly reminded that they were not yet in place.

Change of management could also lead to disability discrimination claims during employment. Claimants described how differing attitudes of employers or line managers to existing reasonable adjustments meant that a change of manager could lead to previously agreement adjustments being withdrawn. For example, in one instance a change in manager meant that previously agreed hybrid working arrangements were removed.

Some claimants said that they were harassed by employers when they were signed off work by a doctor on grounds of stress or poor mental health (with this sometimes arising from what claimants saw as a failure to make reasonable adjustments in the first place).

This could also lead to a feeling the claimant was being targeted or victimised with the aim of constructively dismissing them.

In handling a complaint, grievance, and dismissal. Claimants described situations in which the employer had not followed correct procedures in terms of managing absence due to sickness or reasonable adjustments. There were examples of people having been dismissed whilst they were suspended from work due to health concerns or being dismissed without the employer having first responded to a grievance they had submitted.

While some employers did make reasonable adjustments or allowed employees to change their role to remove or reduce any issues related to their disability, there were cases where analysis of the interviews suggested that employers probably moved too quickly to dismissal. This emerged in cases where claimants said employers reacted quickly over what their employers saw as too many sickness absences, or a perceived inability of the claimant to perform their role. Some employers simply did not extend a probationary period or did not renewing a short-term contract. By comparison other employers only took this approach after discussing possible reasons for poorer performance, carrying out an occupational health assessment or attempts at redeployment.

2.2 Do employers handle complaints about disability discrimination differently from other types of complaints?

There may be many opportunities for employers and employees to try to resolve a workplace dispute internally – informally, or else following a formal disciplinary and grievance process – before it even reaches the point of an employee notifying Acas about making a claim to an employment tribunal. This section explores how employers handled complaints of disability discrimination internally, whether they understood their responsibilities about making reasonable adjustments, and the impact of the lack of employer and employee knowledge about possible reasonable adjustments.

2.2.1. How knowledgeable are employers and claimants about disability discrimination?

Employers and claimants showed varying levels of knowledge about disability discrimination and good practice on disability in the workplace.

For employers, knowledge about the law on disability discrimination came from previous experience of responding to such claims personally. This included participants who worked in HR departments, organisations' legal representatives, or legal consultants they regularly used. Consequently, their experience and qualifications meant they were more confident in dealing with disability discrimination complaints than were claimants. In some cases, employers described that they had subsequently introduced training for staff on management of disability discrimination following the claim.

The exception to this pattern was smaller organisations without a dedicated HR department or outsourced HR support, who found it harder to keep up with legislation and good practice. This was because they had to juggle the management of the organisation with personnel matters. Where there was a lack of experience, employers relied on following existing procedures, if available, or external advice including from legal consultants or solicitors.

There was also evidence from employers and claimants that knowledge of disability discrimination among HR staff was not being cascaded to line managers. The ensuing lack of knowledge at line managerial level led to disability discrimination cases being mishandled, staff possibly moving too quickly to formal disciplinary action or even dismissal, and making procedural errors in the handling of cases.

Claimants were less likely than employers to have knowledge of disability discrimination from a professional or legal standpoint, and so often sought advice on how to proceed with their case once they felt they had experienced disability discrimination. Sometimes claimants had legal knowledge from previous experiences of disability discrimination, and if they had been to the employment tribunal before and represented themselves. This gave them more confidence in making a claim.

Where claimants did not have much knowledge, they sought advice from trade unions, charitable or voluntary sector organisations, online, and from Acas's helpline. All the claimants in the study represented themselves – this decision was either due to the cost because they were not a trade union member, or when they felt their union was not helpful or unconvinced about the strength of the claim.

Organisations from which claimants sought advice included the Equality Advisory Support Service , Citizens Advice , Pregnant Then Screwed and Valla , an online legal platform designed to offer low cost legal support for people taking out a grievance against their employer or going to an employment tribunal.

Advice from previous claimants was particularly valued, as they had been in the same position. Claimants discussed using online forums, and YouTube channels where they found advice. They praised these organisations and forums for giving them confidence when they were going through the process of questioning their treatment by an employer, and deciding whether they had a strong enough case.Claimants in the study all represented themselves – where they had sought legal advice, it was usually through friends and family who had experience in the legal sector; although there were some instances where claimants paid for advice from a solicitor themselves. Employers thought that solicitors were sometimes the driving force behind claimants' decision to proceed to a full tribunal hearing, even in cases that the employer perceived to be weak, and that the claimant was therefore unlikely to win.

2.2.2. Why are disability discrimination complaints not resolved internally?

There were varying degrees to which employers tried to manage and resolve issues before they reached the stage of the claimant formalising their intention to make an employment tribunal claim. However, disability discrimination claims arose when they could no longer be managed internally. There were several reasons for this, as follows.

There was a disagreement over an employee's capability to perform their role. While claimants alleged disability discrimination, employers sometimes considered that an employee was simply under performing or incapable of doing their job. Both claimants and employers reflected that, as a result, things sometimes moved too quickly to formal processes without exploring informal means to resolve disputes.

Claimants emphasised the way in which their disability or poor health made it harder for them to perform their job. They observed that they were struggling physically or mentally, and sometimes had to take time off sick due to stress, or employers not making reasonable adjustments.

By contrast employers noted examples of persistent sickness absences or poor performance. For example, an employer said:

"Their position is usually, 'I can't help it,' [but] after we've factored in the challenges you have … they've tried to work within those reasonable adjustments, but they just can't either get to work, or … they just can't do it" (Employer 4, private sector, over 250 staff).

Disagreements between employees and employers over the extent to which the latter were obligated to make reasonable adjustments could lead to an impasse. This was especially the case where some employers had tried to make reasonable adjustments, but they felt they had not worked.

There were disputes over whether suitable reasonable adjustments had been put in place. Clearly this can be an area for disputes since what is considered 'reasonable' is subjective and is not clearly defined in law. Claimants reported numerous issues in relation to reasonable adjustments. These included: asking for them but not being given them; employers saying they would discuss them but never doing so; and employers taking a long time to implement the adjustments, or not adhering to them consistently.

Changes in management also meant that reasonable adjustments were sometimes withdrawn, as discussed above. Similarly, a change in line management could also be distressing if a previous line manager had a good understanding of their disability or health condition, and the adjustments they needed, while a new manager did not.

Disagreements led to a breakdown in the employment relationship. Arguments and disagreements with managers over reasonable adjustments, perceived poor performance, or sickness absence, sometimes led to a complete breakdown of working relationships.

In some cases, claimants made a formal grievance against their employer, went off sick, or resigned over disagreements about their disability. They said they felt that their employer did not want to understand their disability and was simply trying to 'get rid of them'. This led to claimants expressing a sense of anger, personal injustice or upset, which resulted in the employer and employee not talking. Claimants did not always have confidence in the internal processes being fair.

These feelings of injustice were sometimes so strong that claimants felt the only way to 'get some closure' was to make a claim of disability discrimination and go to tribunal. This sense of injustice also contributed to claimants' decision-making in pursuing a tribunal claim all the way to full hearing (as discussed further in chapter 3). One claimant said:

"It just didn't sit right with me, what had happened, and I wanted to understand. Is this acceptable, that someone can be made to feel like that?" (Claimant 5, private sector, 50 to 249 staff)

Internal processes could also take so long that they had not concluded by the time the claimant needed to submit the claim. There was a perception among some claimants that they had hit a brick wall in terms of seeking a resolution internally.

By contrast employers thought they had already made enough adjustments to accommodate an employee's disability or ill-health, were tired of the situation, and so moved to disciplining or dismissing them. Since employers often felt the issue was one of poor performance rather than disability discrimination, they considered that they had 'done nothing wrong':

 "Well, we can't settle a claim where we don't think we've done anything substantially wrong" (Employer 1, public sector, over 250 staff)

Other employers felt that they had simply exhausted all options of reasonable adjustments available to them. While some conceded that, with hindsight, they could have handled the situation better, they nevertheless felt that, overall, they had done all they could at the time.

Together these factors meant that either or both parties felt that the issues could not be resolved internally or without a third party being involved.

2.2.3. Are claims brought under a single jurisdiction handled differently?

The findings suggest that employers tended to be more comfortable dealing with claims of disability discrimination where they involved a single issue related to disability, and where relatively simple or well-known reasonable adjustments could be made. For example, installing specialist software on computers to support dyslexic employees or offering reduced hours or counselling for employees experiencing periods of poor mental health.

They were less comfortable dealing with more complex issues involving forms of neurodivergence, complex mental health conditions, and conditions leading to extended sickness absences and concerns about work performance. These cases tended to be less well understood and perceived as less clear cut in terms of whether disability discrimination had taken place. They were therefore more likely to result in complaints that required third party involvement.

In addition, employers were sometimes less sympathetic to disability discrimination claims involving other jurisdictions, where they believed disability discrimination had only been brought into the case at a later stage to try to shore up a less substantial claim against having been disciplined or dismissed. In one case, the claim began as disciplinary action for incompetence and the employee was very cooperative. However, once it was decided that the employee would be dismissed, they appealed and raised the issue of their anxiety and depression.

In summary, issues leading to disability discrimination claims tended to be linked to disagreements over what constituted reasonable adjustments; the management of sickness absences related to disability; and subsequent complaints, resignations, or dismissals. Although employers and claimants often tried to resolve these issues internally in the first instance, a lack of knowledge and experience, deteriorating relationships between employer and claimants, and a sense of no wrongdoing on the part of either party could lead to these claims escalating to the point of resolution requiring external input.

3. Factors that affect whether parties settle through conciliation or proceed to tribunal

This chapter covers the factors that led parties to settle claims of disability discrimination through Acas conciliation, or else proceed to a full employment tribunal hearing. It first sets out the different stages in the customer journey where there are opportunities for conciliation and gives an overview of the factors that influenced decisions on whether to proceed to the next stage. It then explores the experiences of unrepresented claimants and employers who went to tribunal, and their degree of satisfaction with the outcomes.

3.1 Where in the customer journey can Acas influence the factors driving disability discrimination claims?

There were numerous factors that either drove claimants or employers on to the next stage in the tribunal process, or that led them to decide to reach a settlement. They were divided into areas in which Acas may have opportunities to intervene, and those where Acas may have potential to influence but not directly control them. Figure 2 below sets out the different stages in the customer journey in making a claim and the key factors that could lead to a settlement or drive participants on to full hearing.

Those areas where Acas may have opportunities to intervene through more direct, proactive conciliation, or the creation of evidence-based, written advisory content, were to do with factors that related to the conciliation process, including:

• Parties' knowledge and understanding of the conciliation and tribunal process. Both claimants and employers did not always understand what conciliation was and what it could achieve, meaning they were less likely to engage with it. This also meant that there could be a mismatch between what claimants and employers expected of conciliation, and what Acas can provide within the current remit. 
• Parties' understanding of disability discrimination and expectations of the likely outcome of the tribunal. Similarly, some claimants had unrealistic expectations of what the outcome of their case might be at a hearing, or an unrealistic understanding of the strength of their claim.
• Form and consistency of conciliation services. In some cases, claimants and employers felt that the conciliation service had not supported them to come to an earlier resolution. This was because communication was perceived as being too slow; the conciliation process did not help parties understand each other's positions; or the service did not offer enough signposting or advice to information that would have helped parties decide to settle (for example what kind of reasonable adjustments have been made by employers for types of disability, previous outcomes from tribunals for similar types of claims, how levels of compensation payments are calculated).

Figure 2 shows factors related to conciliation and the possible route for a dispute reaching a hearing or settlement at employment tribunal.

Factors related to conciliation include:

• parties understanding of conciliation
• parties understanding and expectation of employment tribunal outcomes
• form and consistency of conciliation

The route for a dispute reaching hearing or settlement has 3 stages:

• disputes not resolved internally
• disputes not resolved at early conciliation
• disputes at post-tribunal conciliation

The factors that influence a dispute not being resolved internally have been shown to be:

• the grievance procedure taking a long time
• the relationship has broken down

The factors that influence decisions for not resolving at early conciliation have been shown to be:

• time available for conciliation
• views on the strengths of the case
• desired outcomes

The factors influencing decisions for not resolving at post-tribunal claim conciliation have been shown to be:

• length of time to get to full hearing
• stress and mental health
• affordability

After post-tribunal conciliation, the parties can reach a settlement or go to a full tribunal hearing.

Factors where Acas may have less direct control, but some potential to influence, were:

• Timing issues – related to deadlines for making a claim to an employment tribunal (3 months minus 1 day for most claims); the 6-week maximum 'stop the clock' provisions for early conciliation; the length of time it took for cases to reach full a hearing following submission of the claim; and the belated availability of new information pertinent to the case. These issues also interacted with the parties' feelings about the case, their sense of continuing anger or injustice, and whether new information or changes in circumstances changed their minds about whether to proceed to tribunal.
• Personal and circumstantial issues – to do with the degree to which the parties felt legally, financially, and emotionally supported in their case, whether their physical and mental health was good enough to continue, the stress this placed on them and their families, and whether they could risk the financial or reputational costs of losing a case.

All these factors above were important, in one direction or the other, along the customer journey. These are explored in the sections that follow; both in terms of the factors relevant at each stage of conciliation, and the subtle ways in which they interacted to encourage settlement, or to drive parties towards a full hearing at an employment tribunal.

3.2 Why are some claims not being settled at early conciliation?

This section examines the factors that affected whether claimants and employers took part in early conciliation, whether they actively engaged with it, and what shaped their decisions to proceed to the next stage.

3.2.1. What factors affect whether customers take part in early conciliation?

There were 3 main factors that affected whether customers took part in early conciliation:

• the extent to which the relationship between parties had broken down
• whether parties were fully aware of and understood the early conciliation offer
• the length of time in which early conciliation must take place.

These are discussed in turn below.

Summary of the factors shaping whether customers take part in early conciliation:

• Personal and circumstantial factors: the extent to which the relationship between parties had broken down
• Factors related to conciliation: whether parties were fully aware of and understood the early conciliation offer
• Timing issues: The 6-week period in which early conciliation can take place

Breakdown of relationship between the parties. As discussed in chapter 2, there were a variety of reasons why disputes arose between parties, resulting in one or both parties feeling angry and injured, and their relationship breaking down.

Claimants said they declined to use early conciliation where they felt they were not being listened to by the employer, the employer denied any liability in their case, or the parties were simply no longer talking to each other, amicably or at all.

Employers said that, even where they had been willing to take part in early conciliation, the claimant had failed to engage with or else withdrawn from the early conciliation process. However, employers also declined to take part where they felt that they had followed correct procedures or that they had 'done nothing wrong'.

A breakdown in communications could also be a reason for taking part in early conciliation. By taking part, the parties hoped that Acas would act as a 'go between', facilitating communications that might not otherwise have happened. As one claimant put it, Acas acted as an 'iron barrier', which helped reduce angry and emotional contacts. Others liked the fact that the conciliator had acted as a neutral agent when they had previously only encountered hostile communications from their employer and their representatives.

However, taking part in early conciliation for claimants could also be seen as a way of formalising or 'ramping up' communications with their employer thereby forcing their employer to take their claim more seriously.

Lack of awareness or understanding about early conciliation. Some potential users of early conciliation did not participate, either because they appeared to be unaware of having had the option to take part, or because they did not understand what using early conciliation offered them. The term 'conciliation' itself was confusing to some people due to unfamiliarity with it.

Additionally, some claimants and employers appeared to not have fully understood the early conciliation offer or appreciate that they had taken part in it. This possibly related to claimants not being able to engage in communications in certain forms or being unwell at the point of when contact with them was made.

Claimants also said that, when they were most unwell, they would have welcomed their Acas conciliator taking more of the responsibility for establishing and maintaining regular, meaningful contact, instead of it being incumbent upon them to initiate contact with the conciliator (see section 4.1). They therefore saw the conciliator as helping ensure contact and momentum between the parties was maintained, rather the simply passing on communications.

For their part, employers were also sometimes unaware that early conciliation existed and only found out that an employee had made a claim of discrimination against them when they received the tribunal form. This is because early conciliation is only offered to the employer where the claimant first agrees to participate. Some employers said they would have liked to take part in early conciliation if they had been given the option, but subsequently found out the claimant had already declined.

In this context, some employers and claimants thought early conciliation should be compulsory where the other party had declined to take part, or that parties should be more actively encouraged to participate, rather than it being seen as a 'stepping stone' to tribunal. This may include using research to show why claimants and employers sometimes wished they had settled earlier through conciliation rather than going to tribunal.

The length of time in which early conciliation must take place. There are strict time limits for making a claim to an employment tribunal (known as the 'limitation period'). In most cases, claimants have 3 months minus 1 day from the date the problem at work happened. Some claimants felt that this length of time had not been sufficient. Although the limitation period is paused for up to 6 weeks while early conciliation takes place, some claimants said that they nonetheless felt forced into submitting their ET1 tribunal claim form, because their employer had still not responded to an outstanding grievance before the time ran out for early conciliation.

In these cases, claimants sometimes suspected employers were deliberately delaying the process to test their determination to proceed to tribunal. This happened where the claimant had resigned, had been dismissed, or they were on a period of prolonged sickness absence. In contrast, some claimants said they let the period for early conciliation elapse without meaningfully participating because they did not want to disclose information to their employer that might ultimately be used against them at tribunal. This led some participants to argue that 6 weeks was not a long enough period for meaningful engagement and that in some cases only 'a handful' of emails had been exchanged during that time.

3.2.2. What factors shape decisions to proceed with disability discrimination claims?

Here discussion focused on:

• the perception that the other party had not really engaged in early conciliation
• whether employers thought they had a case to answer
• whether the correct policies and procedures had been followed in handling the case
• desired outcomes from the claim (especially desired level of payments)

These are discussed below.

One or other party did not meaningfully engage.  Employers and claimants decided to press on to a full hearing when one or both believed that the other showed no willingness to compromise; to try to understand the other's perspective; or show remorse for the dispute having arisen. As one claimant experiencing symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder put it:

"The last place I wanted to go was an employment tribunal, but I had no option because they just wouldn't consider or talk or explain anything to me" (Claimant 15, public sector, over 250 staff).

This meant, that despite both parties agreeing to take part in early conciliation, they reached an impasse.

Employers with 'no case to answer'. A key reason employers decided to press on to full hearing was that they felt that, in terms of disability discrimination, they had 'done nothing wrong'. This view was voiced by employers who felt the dispute was really about something else such as poor performance, absence, or breach of contractual obligation, rather than disability discrimination (see section 2.1.2).

For instance, one employer discussed a case where a person with a visual impairment had been consistently rude and aggressive to other staff. Although there had been a delay in obtaining some specialist equipment to make their work easier as part of a reasonable adjustment, they nevertheless saw the issue as one of discipline, not disability.

While some employers saw such claims as vexatious, others felt it was simply a way for ex-employees to express their frustration and anger over being disciplined or dismissed.

A sense of injustice and 'righting a wrong' among claimants. Claimants, by comparison, tended to see their decision to press on to full hearing as a determination to right a wrong or to correct an injustice. This included alleged disability discrimination during recruitment and employment.

Regarding disability discrimination at recruitment, a claimant with a cognitive impairment said they felt discriminated against because they were told they could not give oral responses for an application form, instead of in writing. They felt confident it was disability discrimination because they researched possible reasonable adjustments during recruitment and had already won a similar case at tribunal before.

Regarding disability discrimination during employment, claimants also expressed a desire to make work better for them and others in the future. They talked about the importance of challenging 'old-fashioned' or 'toxic' working cultures for disabled people.

A sense of 'righting a wrong' could also drive cases where they involved another jurisdiction as well as disability discrimination (for example, failure to give statutory breaks, denial of reasonable flexible working requests). An example was a hotel worker who said they had medical conditions that meant they could not work long hours or multiple days in succession without suitable rest periods.

Whether internal procedures had been followed. Another factor that drove employers and claimants on towards a full hearing was whether they felt the case had been managed well internally.

Sometimes a willingness to take part in early conciliation for claimants was driven by the fact that they had been advised that their employer had not followed a full and fair procedure in line with good practice. In these cases, they had sought advice from third parties such as a solicitor or Citizens Advice, who suggested that their employer had made significant handling or procedural mistakes, for example not giving verbal or written warnings prior to dismissal.

By engaging in early conciliation, these claimants had hoped that the employer would admit to not having handled the process properly. Where this did not happen, it made the claimant more determined to proceed to the full tribunal hearing.

From the opposite perspective, employers could be equally confident that they had followed correct procedures, and therefore would not back down. This was especially the case where they had: (a) put in place reasonable adjustments but judged that employee performance had not improved; or (b) had conducted an occupational health assessment to assess whether the employee was still capable of their job or suitable for redeployment, but found the employee was not. Good management of issues related to disability in this respect usually involved skilled HR professionals, employers with their own solicitors, or advice from specialist legal consultants.

However, even in some cases where employers admitted procedural errors, they sometimes refused to settle because they thought the claimant's request for an apology or to be reinstated in their job was unreasonable, or that they were asking for an excessive payment.

Level of compensation payments. A significant reason why the parties failed to settle at early conciliation was linked to the amount of money requested or offered for settlement. Claimants sometimes said that the amount of money offered was 'insulting' or 'derogatory', particularly where they were only offered outstanding pay at the point of resignation or dismissal, or where they felt that had a clear case of discrimination. Employers said claimants could have completely 'unrealistic expectations', sometimes asking for tens of thousands of pounds. This was especially problematic for smaller employers.

3.3 What factors shape whether participants settle at post-tribunal claim conciliation?

Factors that shaped whether claimants and employers settled at the post-tribunal claim conciliation stage included the conciliation experience, and whether this brought parties closer together. This interacted with the length of time it took to get to a full tribunal hearing, personal and circumstantial factors, and whether new information was identified that encouraged one, or both, parties to settle before the hearing.

Summary of the factors shaping decisions to settle at post tribunal claim conciliation.

Personal and circumstantial factors:

• Level of stress, impact  on mental health
• Being able to afford the costs of tribunal

Timing issues:

• Length of time it took to get to full hearing

Factors related to conciliation:

• What type of conciliation contact parties experienced and whether they went through judicial mediation
• New information that led to compromise and settlement

3.3.1.What were participants' experiences of conciliation in employment tribunal applications?

There was a great deal of variation in what claimants and employers described as having happened at the post tribunal claim conciliation stage, and so experiences of conciliation varied at this point. In addition, some participants participated in judicial mediation as a step prior to a full tribunal hearing that, in some cases, had supported them to come to a settlement.

No or limited contact from Acas. Some claimants said they could not recall any contact or involvement with Acas at this stage. Here, it should be borne in mind that for Acas conciliation to happen, both parties must first agree to participate. Where they did recall Acas contact, some claimants said it was limited to discussion about processes or timings of the next steps towards tribunal. Participants also said that contact was limited to a few emails or phone calls.

Some claimants and employers were disappointed that the parties were not brought together, either again or for the first time, to try to resolve the issues at this point. There was a strong sense that claimants were unclear about what Acas's role was at this stage:

"I think maybe someone called me to say, 'Okay, you're going through conciliation. I'm the person overseeing it'. But I don't actually know what they did..."  (Claimant 7, public sector, over 250 staff).

Acas relaying information to reach and write COT3 agreements. Those who did recall more contact described Acas's role as principally to 'relay information' between parties, and to write up COT3 agreements where they decided to settle. While some claimants and respondents welcomed the fact that they did not have to deal with the other party directly – thereby reducing the level of anger, hostility, or rashness in communications – others said Acas simply conveyed that the other party had refused to conciliate or move position. This served to reinforce feelings among these claimants that Acas was not adding value to the communications and added to feelings of frustration.

One of the most prominent frustrations expressed about contact with Acas at post-claim conciliation stage, was that it did not help the customer gain more clarity about the strength of their case based on good practice or points of law. Participants felt that there was too much emphasis on 'process' and 'timings', and not enough on their substantive case. In some instances, this made claimants feel pressured to settle a dispute when they felt unclear on whether they were more likely win or lose:

"I wanted to know what my position was … I wanted to know legally had I done everything right and was I legally being discriminated against...  That's why I turned to Acas for information on that" (Claimant 7, public sector, over 250 staff).

"Acas should be able to give advice to claimants in regard to the potential success of their claim" (Employer 12, private sector, 10 to 49  staff).

While some claimants and employers realised that Acas is not supposed to give advice on the strength of a case, they nonetheless wanted direction to information that would allow them to judge this for themselves. It was when participants felt that they had not received this signposting that they were most critical of Acas and their conciliators. For some, this made contact with Acas conciliators feel more frustrating than helpful.

However, it was also true that when conciliators were perceived as giving advice, this could also lead to negative reactions (for example, a claimant who felt they had been incorrectly advised to drop a race discrimination element from their claim; an employer who said the advice given to them made them think the conciliator was siding with the claimant).

Nevertheless, claimants and some employers said that better signposting to information that would help them assess the strength of their claim, and whether it made sense to go to tribunal or settle, would have been helpful. Chapter 4 discusses the types of information customers wanted.

Employers were more likely to be positive about Acas's role and tended to have a better understanding of the limitations on the advice conciliators could offer. They were particularly positive where they thought that their conciliator had helped bring both parties together, thereby promoting better understanding of each other’s position. Where this led to a settlement, they also said that Acas had been helpful in pulling together the details of the ensuing COT3 agreement.

Judicial mediation. A sub-group of the study sample told us they had been through judicial mediation. Judicial mediation is provided by HM Courts and Tribunals Service and is not an Acas service. It involves bringing the parties together for a private preliminary hearing before a trained Employment Judge. Judicial mediation is suggested by the Judge in cases where the issues in dispute are deemed suitable and there is potential for settlement, and often where there is an on-going working relationship to preserve.

Judicial mediation was described in different ways by participants, but usually involved a Judge or Judicial Officer. There was no direct involvement by Acas in judicial mediation, although Acas were usually described as having been involved in writing up COT3 agreements where this process led to settlement.

While some claimants described finding judicial mediation formal, scary, or intimidating, others found it helpful in deciding whether to settle or to proceed to a full hearing. Among these participants were claimants and employers who said that the nature of judicial mediation had encouraged them to look more closely at the strength of their case, and to see where they might be prepared to compromise (for example, an employer agreed to make a payment to a claimant provided he dropped the idea that he should be reinstated in his job). In particular, they said that they liked 'getting around the table' which had the advantage of getting the issues resolved more quickly. For some, there was a benefit in the formality of having a Judge present; this made them decide they did not want to go to full hearing. For instance, one employer said the claimant contacted them shortly after judicial mediation to make what they considered to be a more acceptable offer to compromise.

3.3.2.What factors shape decisions to settle at conciliation in employment tribunal cases?

Decisions to settle were grouped around three sets of factors:

• length of time the employment tribunal process took
• personal and circumstantial issues
• new information that led to compromise

These are discussed in turn.

Length of time the tribunal process took. The amount of time it took to get to a full hearing could push participants to settle sooner. Employers sometimes just wanted the case 'resolved'. Claimants talked about the length of time the case was 'hanging over them'.

Sometimes the length of time it took for cases to reach tribunal also meant that circumstances changed, and claimants decided to reach a settlement on that basis. For instance, one claimant who had felt discriminated against during a recruitment process, said they decided to settle with a payment when they realised the job that they wanted was no longer available. In another case, a claimant settled their claim when a new manager took over who struck a more conciliatory tone in negotiations.

Personal and circumstantial issues. These issues fell into 2 broad areas:

• stress and poor mental health
• costs (financial, reputational or both)

The amount of time, effort and stress involved in preparing a case for tribunal, and its impact on people’s mental health, was one of the most prominent reasons discussed for deciding to settle a dispute. For some claimants, the fact that they experienced depression or anxiety in the first place made them fear breaking down or having a panic attack at the hearing. Other claimants emphasised that it was the continuation of the dispute itself which made them so unwell, and that therefore made them decide to settle.

Claimants also felt that it was unfair that they were required to prepare for a tribunal at a time when they were mentally so unwell, with problems of anxiety, depression, difficulties concentrating, and sometimes suicidal thoughts. For example, one claimant said:

"I was exhausted with the process. It was really upsetting and stressful… I just wanted it to be over" (Claimant 7, public sector, over 250 staff).

While it tended to be claimants that raised these issues, employers and human resources participants also wanted to avoid the stress of a full hearing, especially when they had been to tribunal before.

Another prominent factor influencing decisions to settle at this stage for both parties was costs. This included both court costs if a party lost the case, and the potential size of an award if the employer lost. It also included broader costs in terms of reputational damage to the organisation , or the costs to the claimant of seeking employment in future if they had no job reference. Because the research focussed on unrepresented parties only, the costs of professional representation were not discussed as a relevant factor.

New information leading to compromise. Here participants talked about new information becoming available that had not been ready at the time of early conciliation or prior to the deadline to submit the tribunal claim form. In some cases, this new information arose through judicial mediation because a Judge advised on the likelihood a claim would succeed. In other cases, it came to light because of preparations for hearings. In both instances this tended to clarify the strength of a claim and the likelihood of having a claim upheld if it went to full hearing. It was here that participants thought conciliation could have a greater role in highlighting new information that could help facilitate earlier compromise or settlement.

An example of the type of new information that arose at this stage was where an occupational health assessment was conducted after the tribunal claim form was submitted. The assessment said that the claimant was not capable of returning to their job due to their disability and could not be re-deployed elsewhere in the organisation. The claimant therefore decided to settle for a compensation payment to leave the employer.

"In some cases [HR] will say, 'Right, yes, there's been mistakes made here, let's close this down'" (Employer 5, public sector, over 250 staff).

Significantly, the time pressures, stress, likely costs, and perceived strengths of claims, could also combine to make parties accept a partial resolution or compromise. An example was a claimant whose dispute involved discrimination based on both their dyslexia and their stated need as a wheelchair user to work in the office when they chose to due to procedures needed for fire evacuation. Eventually, after several months, their employer made reasonable adjustments for their dyslexia and they ultimately decided it was too much stress to follow-up the other part of the claim that related to their mobility impairment.

For employers and claimants, partial resolution or compromise involved moving closer to an agreed acceptable level of payment to the claimant, sometimes with the claimant accepting that they could not return to their job due to capability, unprofessional behaviour, or breach of contract.

For those who did not settle or did not engage in post-claim conciliation, the reasons reflected those discussed in section 3.2.2. These included:

• Having no case to answer, or 'doing nothing wrong' – as noted above, some employers believed that they had not discriminated against a claimant, either substantively or in their management of the case.
• Justice, fairness or 'righting a wrong' – the fact that some employers appeared not to want to engage with claimants at all, made some claimants feel that real changes in working practices for disabled employees would only come about through them going to a full tribunal hearing.
• In other cases, the desire to go to tribunal came from claimants' desire to 'clear their name', especially where future references or reputation were involved.
• Level of payments – the level of payment offered or requested was a key reason why the other party would not conciliate. For instance, one claimant said they were basically offered the pay that they were still owed to leave their job, which they felt did not recognise the discrimination they had experienced.

By comparison employers were less likely to engage with conciliation in tribunal claims where they thought the level of compensation being sought was totally inappropriate. One employer said that the claimant was seeking £30,000 from their small company. Their decision to go to a full hearing was because they said the requested amount would bankrupt their organisation.

3.4 What are the parties' experiences of tribunal hearings for disability discrimination claims?

Both claimants and employers found the experience of full hearings difficult, although it was described in starker terms by claimants. It should be noted here that all the interviewees in this study represented themselves at tribunal, which is relevant in explaining their strength of feeling.

Experiences of employment tribunal hearings. Claimants invariably described their experiences of going to full hearing as 'nerve wracking', 'horrific', or 'soul destroying', sometimes because claimants already experienced anxiety, panic attacks, depression, or physical illness. One participant described the experience as stressful, but 'exhilarating' because they felt they had learnt so much about their disability and the law. However, a recurring theme for claimants was that going to full hearing was an extremely 'painful' experience, especially where claimants were from smaller organisations previously had close working relationships with colleagues giving evidence against them.

Employers said they also found the experience of full hearings 'difficult' and 'stressful', but this was not to the same extent of the pain expressed by claimants.

Experiences of self-representation. The 'painful' experience of tribunal hearings for claimants was also exacerbated by the fact that they had all represented themselves in court. Reasons for self-representation were to do with legal costs that they could not afford or the fact that they were not trade union members, or else had not found their union to be helpful. Consequently, they often sought advice and support online or from family and friends who had legal expertise (see chapter 2, section 2.2.1).

At the tribunal hearing, claimants said they felt 'alone', 'inexperienced' and 'out of their depth'. As one claimant put it, their employer 'ran rings' around them.

By comparison, employers said they represented themselves with recourse to their organisation's own experienced HR professionals, internal legal departments, or by employing legal consultants who advised on the case. While some smaller employers who represented themselves said they had not been sure what to expect, they had nevertheless felt relatively confident in their position. This therefore indicates an imbalance in legal support for employers and claimants.

3.5 How satisfied are claimants with the outcome of their claim and what shapes satisfaction?

There were no claimants in the sample who had fully won their case. Among those included were claimants who won elements of their claim and received a smaller settlement than they wanted. Others completely lost their case. Even those who were most determined to go to full hearing, sometimes said that in retrospect it would probably have been better to settle earlier due to the impact on their health. This was because the effect on their health was disproportionate to the sense of justice or righting a wrong that they hoped for. Whether claimants partly won or lost their claim, they described feeling 'deflated' or 'disappointed'.

Those who found the judgement hard to accept said the experience was very detrimental to their on-going mental health. This group described tribunal judges as 'biased' or 'ignorant', often in very angry terms.

Employers in the sample tended to be far happier with the tribunal outcome, although some still expressed frustration where they lost in full or a part of a claim. Those who were most satisfied with the case outcome said they felt 'vindicated' that they had followed correct policies and procedures, and sometimes the disability element of the claim, which they felt was spurious, was thrown out. An example was a school that had dismissed a member of teaching staff over what they saw as an issue of incompetence. They felt the claimant only mentioned mental health issues when an internal disciplinary found against them, and the case went to appeal. Employers also said they found the employment tribunal panels 'reasonable' in their judgements.

4. How can Acas's handling of disability discrimination cases be best developed?

This chapter explores participants' views on how Acas could provide further guidance on the handling of disability discrimination in the workplace and develop its conciliation offer. It describes what customers wanted from conciliation, and their suggestions for improvements. It also discusses what advice and information Acas and other organisations could provide to help prevent disability discrimination occurring, or else to resolve claims earlier, with less cost and stress to both parties.

4.1 How can conciliation in disability discrimination cases be improved?

4.1.1. parties' views on conciliation services.

Larger employers, who had legal representatives or consultants or dedicated human resources staff, were most positive about the conciliation service, saying it was 'excellent' and 'invaluable', and describing conciliators they had worked with as 'knowledgeable'. Other employers and some claimants felt their Acas conciliator had done the best they could in difficult circumstances given the perceived intransigence of the other party. Claimants were more positive about it where they felt it had enabled them to get more information from their employer, helped understand the other party's position and had formalised the process of communication.

By comparison, another group of customers were highly critical of conciliation, both at the initial early conciliation and subsequent post-claim stage. This group consisted of both claimants and smaller employers who felt the service had not helped in any way. Underlying this perspective was their belief that:

• the purpose of conciliation was unclear
• there was too much emphasis on process and timings of tribunal stages, rather than the substance of the claim and actual 'conciliation'
• that the service did not offer enough advice or signposting (for example, on what constitutes disability discrimination, the nature of reasonable adjustments, and the likely strength of a claim)

Some claimants said they had found contact with Acas conciliators to be frustrating, an experience they described as being more a 'hindrance than a help'.

4.1.2. Suggested improvements to conciliation services

Suggested improvements to conciliation services advanced by interviewees focused on 3 issues:

Improving awareness of the conciliation offer, including communicating it and adapting it to the needs of disabled people.  As outlined in section 3.2.1, some users (claimants and employers) did not fully understand what 'conciliation' meant or fully understand the service being offered. This meant some did not take part in early conciliation, or fully engage at this or the later stage.

There was some evidence that this resulted from Acas not communicating with claimants in ways suited to their disability (especially for people with dyslexia who preferred spoken communication, and others who were neurodivergent who liked written communications). They emphasised the need for communication in different formats and understanding that disabled people may have different communications needs:

"So, understanding that and not treating everybody the same is knowledge that I felt that was missing" (Claimant 12, third sector, over 250 staff).

Disabled claimants also emphasised that their disability or health condition made them more vulnerable relative to other types of claims (for example, alleged discrimination relating to a mental health issue compared to non-payment of wages). As one participant explained, they felt that people submitting disability discrimination claims needed to be taken care of more than most:

"When anybody rings Acas with a disability discrimination case (...) they really need to be looked after and given all the help and all the support that can possibly be given" (Claimant 14, public sector, over 250 staff).

Making conciliation more proactive. At both early and later stages of conciliation, employers and claimants wanted conciliators to be more proactive in persuading both parties of the benefits of taking part in conciliation. Employers said conciliators could take a greater role in repairing broken working relationships, bringing parties closer to understanding each other's positions, and exploring areas of compromise or reasonable compensation (for example, highlighting occupational health assessments, reference to case law). Claimants and employers said conciliation needed to be more than just 'relaying messages'. In describing what they would like from the service, both employers and claimants described wanting more of a mediation-type service.

• At early conciliation, some employers believed that claimants should not be able to proceed to tribunal without first engaging in early conciliation. For their part, some claimants observed that it was the employer who had declined to take part, when they would have liked to have attempted to resolve the dispute using early conciliation. For those who had engaged in early conciliation, participants highlighted that responsiveness from conciliators and timely communications, even if it were just an update explaining that they were waiting for a response from the other party would be helpful.
• At conciliation in tribunal applications, customers also suggested that more regular, proactive contact would be more likely to encourage parties to settle their dispute rather that proceeding to a hearing. They said that claimants may be struggling with mental health problems, and so having someone else take responsibility for maintaining contact would help. Some resented having to chase their conciliator for information or said they would have appreciated them being more 'present' or being 'kept in the loop'.
• Signposting to information. This desire for a more proactive approach was also evidenced in that some claimants wanted more support and signposting to the information they felt they needed. Without this kind of signposting, they could not see how Acas added value in helping them decide whether to settle or proceed to tribunal. One employer argued that, unless Acas took on more of this role, conciliation became 'impotent':

"[Acas] haven't got the authority or the legal know how to say, 'You're not going to get anything out of this case, it's going to be a complete waste of time'" (Employer 4, private sector, over 250 staff).

4.2 What else could Acas do to help avoid or support parties' handling of disability discrimination complaints?

Here, suggested support for preventing disability discrimination claims arising in the first place focused on the advice that interviewees felt Acas could provide for employers, employees, and claimants. Participants also highlighted issues that they thought Acas could raise with the employment tribunals service. In some cases, this information is already available from Acas, suggesting the issue is to do with the signposting of available information and resources at the appropriate time rather than the availability of such information. Below sets out the key areas where participants felt further information would be valuable, or where interviews revealed existing information could be highlighted and signposted better to meet their needs.

Information needs of employers:

• What are the legal requirements around reasonable adjustments (including for the recruitment process) and what these can look like
• How to address perceived 'performance' issues by first exploring adjustments and capability
• How to use occupational health assessments to support making reasonable adjustments
• Sources of funding for reasonable adjustments such as Access to Work
• Up-to-date information on case law and advice on best practice

Information needs of employees:

• What reasonable adjustments can be requested for the recruitment process
• What reasonable adjustments , or flexible working arrangements , can be requested in the workplace, 
• Appropriate internal processes of resolving disputes  (for example, putting in an internal grievance rather than going to tribunal immediately)
• The role of occupational health assessments  
• Possible sources of funding for reasonable adjustments

Information needs of disability discrimination claimants:

• Specific support organisations they could contact, relevant to their disability
• What to do if their mental health is negatively impacted by the employment tribunal process
• What the various employment tribunal stages are, and what claimant's options are within this
• How to prepare for an employment tribunal, and who can help them with this preparation

Some claimants said that they had not heard of Acas before starting the tribunal claim process and suggested that Acas should raise its profile. This was regarded as especially important for people working in non-unionised workplaces, and employees with no previous experience of the employment tribunal system. One claimant suggested that employees should be made aware of Acas as part of their job induction.

4.2.1.  Is there any wider learning for other organisations?

Broader learning for the whole tribunals system, including the employment tribunal service, was also discussed. Three main issues were raised.

First, interviewees argued that the waiting times for employment tribunals are too long. Both claimants and employers experienced stress arising from the length of time it took to get to tribunal, with the result that some settled simply to get the process over with. They felt forced to relive very negative and upsetting experiences long after the incident, which affected their mental health.

Second, claimants said that the tribunal process needs to be more mindful of mental health issues, and of the state of a claimant's mental health, when setting timings for tribunal hearings. One claimant suggested that mental health needed to be treated more like mobility disabilities when considering access to the tribunal, and that adjustments need to be made in this respect, such as having greater flexibility with scheduling to ensure people can participate when they feel well.

Finally, claimants felt that more could be done to share knowledge about disability with employment tribunal panel members. They questioned whether the panel members are sufficiently knowledgeable about the large variety of disabilities and health conditions they must encounter, and any suitable corresponding reasonable adjustments that can be made. Claimants suggested that for each disability discrimination case being heard, at least one panel member should have a good knowledge of the specific disability or health condition(s) in dispute.

Appendices – Section A: Context to the research

The Acas management system collects information on the indicative jurisdictions for early conciliation cases. When focusing on discrimination cases, there has been a clear increase in disability discrimination cases over time from under 10% of all early conciliation cases in 2020 to 2021 to 14% of all early conciliation cases in the first 2 quarters of 2023 to 2024.

Additionally, the employment tribunal statistics are published quarterly. The latest figures state that nearly 9% of the entire 2022 to 2023 caseload (claims accepted) included a disability discrimination jurisdiction. Table 2 shows the disability discrimination caseload has increased by 3.7 percentage points in the last 5 recorded years. This is the largest percentage point increase over the period in employment tribunal claims with a discrimination jurisdiction.

Appendices – Section B: Achieved sample

Appendices – Section C: Employer and claimant interview topic guides

If you would like copies of our interview topic guides, email [email protected]

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In Tied Presidential Race, Harris and Trump Have Contrasting Strengths, Weaknesses

What if they win harris and trump supporters differ over the acceptability of presidential actions by their own candidate, table of contents.

• Other findings: An uncertain election outcome, the more critical candidate, Trump and the 2020 election
• Voting preferences among demographic groups
• Support for Harris, Trump among voters and nonvoters in recent elections
• How Harris and Trump supporters see their vote
• Do voters think it’s clear who will win?
• Most voters cite several issues as very important to their vote
• Changes in confidence in candidates on issues, following Biden’s departure from race 
• Do voters see the candidates as ‘too personally critical’?
• Do the candidates make you feel proud, hopeful, uneasy or angry?
• How the candidates make Harris and Trump supporters feel
• How men and women view the impact of the candidates’ genders
• Views of the candidates’ races and ethnicities
• Views of the candidates’ ages among younger and older voters
• Views of the values and goals of the other candidate’s supporters
• Should the president work with the opposing party in Congress?
• Top economic concerns: Food and consumer prices, housing costs
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Pew Research Center conducted this study to understand Americans’ views of the 2024 presidential election campaign.

For this analysis, we surveyed 9,720 adults – including 8,044 registered voters – from Aug. 26 to Sept. 2, 2024. Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), a group of people recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses who have agreed to take surveys regularly. This kind of recruitment gives nearly all U.S. adults a chance of selection. Surveys were conducted either online or by telephone with a live interviewer. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other factors. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this report , the topline and the survey methodology .

Ahead of the scheduled Sept. 10 presidential debate between Vice President Kamala Harris and former President Donald Trump, the presidential race is deadlocked. About half of registered voters (49%) say if the election were held today, they would vote for Harris, while an identical share say they would back Trump.

With less than two months before the November election, the candidates bring contrasting strengths and weaknesses to the presidential contest.

Trump’s key advantage is on the economy, which voters regard as the most important issue this year. A 55% majority of voters say they are very or somewhat confident in Trump to make good decisions about economic policy, compared with 45% who say that about Harris.

Harris’ lead over Trump on abortion is a near mirror image of Trump’s on the economy: 55% of voters have at least some confidence in Harris, while 44% express confidence in Trump.

And Harris holds sizable leads over Trump on several personal traits and characteristics, including being a good role model (a 19 percentage point advantage), down-to-earth (13 points) and honest (8 points).

The latest national survey by Pew Research Center, conducted among 9,720 adults (including 8,044 registered voters) from Aug. 26 to Sept. 2, 2024, highlights how much has changed in the campaign – and what hasn’t – since President Joe Biden withdrew from the race and Harris became the Democratic nominee.

Trump’s advantage on “mental sharpness” has disappeared. Currently, 61% of voters say the phrase “mentally sharp” describes Harris very or fairly well, compared with 52% who describe Trump this way. Two months ago , more than twice as many voters viewed Trump as mentally sharp (58%) than said that about Biden (24%). ( Read more about perceptions of the candidates in Chapter 3. )

Democratic satisfaction with the candidates has increased. The share of Harris supporters who are very or fairly satisfied with the presidential candidates is nearly triple the share of Biden supporters who were satisfied in July (52% now vs. 18% then). As a result, Harris backers now are more likely than Trump backers to say they are satisfied with the candidates, a clear reversal from just two months ago. ( Read more about voter engagement and views of the candidates in Chapter 5. )

The state of the race. The overall patterns of support for each candidate have changed little since last month . For instance, Trump holds a lead among White voters (56% to 42%), while Harris maintains large advantages with Black voters (84% to 13%) and Asian voters (61% to 37%). Latino voters, whose support was evenly divided between Biden and Trump in July, now favor Harris, 57% to 39%. (Read more voter preferences in Chapter 1 and explore demographic breaks on voter preferences in the detailed tables. )

Americans’ views of the economy continue to be largely negative. Americans’ views of the national economy are about as negative today as they were at the start of this year. Only 25% rate national economic conditions excellent or good. Prices for food and consumer goods continue to be a major concern for most Americans, and increasing shares express concerns about housing costs and jobs. ( Read more about economic attitudes in Chapter 7. )

In a historic election, how voters view the impact of candidates’ races and ethnicities, genders and ages

If she wins in November, Harris will make history by becoming the first woman president. She would also be the first Asian American and first Black woman president. If Trump wins, he will become the oldest person to take office, at 78. ( Read more about voters’ views of the candidates’ demographic characteristics in Chapter 4. )

Voters overall have mixed views of the impact of Harris’ gender and race and ethnicity on her candidacy. More say the fact that Harris is a woman and that she is Black and Asian will help her than hurt her with voters this fall. Somewhat more voters see Harris’ gender as a potential negative (30%) than see her race and ethnicity this way (19%).

Harris supporters are far more likely than Trump supporters to say the vice president’s gender and race will be a liability. More than twice as many Harris supporters (42%) as Trump supporters (16%) say the fact that Harris is a woman will hurt her with voters. Fewer Harris supporters think her race and ethnicity will be a hindrance (31%), but just 8% of Trump supporters say the same.

Nearly half of voters say Trump’s age will hurt his candidacy. Far more voters say Trump’s age will hurt him (49%) than help him (3%) in the election; the remainder say it will not make much difference. The reverse is true for how voters see the effect of Harris’ age: 46% say the fact that she is 59 will help her with voters, while just 3% say it will hurt her.

Harris, Trump supporters weigh in: What actions are acceptable for a president?

Looking ahead, Harris and Trump supporters have very different ideas about the kinds of presidential actions that would be acceptable if their preferred candidate takes office ( read more about these views in Chapter 6 ):

Investigating political opponents

More than half of Trump supporters (54%) say it would definitely or probably be acceptable for Trump to order federal law enforcement officials to investigate Democratic opponents. Half as many Harris supporters (27%) say it would be acceptable for Harris to order investigations into GOP opponents.

Pardoning family, friends and supporters; firing disloyal federal workers

Trump supporters also are far more likely than Harris supporters to say it would be acceptable for their candidate to pardon friends, family or political supporters who have been convicted of crimes and to fire federal workers at any level who are not personally loyal to them.

Executive orders

Majorities of both Trump supporters (58%) and Harris supporters (55%) say it would be acceptable for their candidate, if they win, to use executive orders to make policies when they can’t get their priorities through Congress.

Trump is widely viewed as too personally critical of Harris. About two-thirds of voters (66%) say Trump has been too personally critical of Harris. By comparison, fewer (45%) say Harris has been too personally critical of Trump. About four-in-ten Trump supporters (41%) say Trump has been too critical of his opponent, compared with just 12% of Harris supporters who say the same of Harris.

Most say it’s not yet clear who will win. Only 20% of voters say it is already clear which candidate will win the election, while 80% say it is not yet clear. Voters who say it is clear who will win overwhelmingly say their preferred candidate will prevail. When those who say it is not yet clear are asked for their “best guess,” they also opt for their candidate.

Trump’s role in the 2020 election remains divisive. More than four-in-ten voters (46%) say Trump broke the law in an effort to change the outcome of the 2020 election, while another 14% say he did something wrong but did not break the law. Another 27% say Trump did nothing wrong. These views are largely unchanged since April . While Harris supporters overwhelmingly say Trump broke the law (88% say this), Trump backers are divided: 54% say he did nothing wrong while 27% say either he did something wrong or broke the law. Trump supporters (18%) are more likely than Harris supporters (7%) to say they are not sure.

Voters also divided on Trump’s New York fraud case. The survey was completed before a New York judge delayed sentencing in the criminal case against Trump in which he was found guilty of falsifying business records and other charges related to “hush money” payments to Stormy Daniels. Among all voters, 39% say Trump should serve time in jail, while 45% say he should not. About seven-in-ten Harris supporters (72%) think Trump should have to serve jail time, while an even larger share of Trump supporters (81%) say he should not.

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The Political Values of Harris and Trump Supporters

As robert f. kennedy jr. exits, a look at who supported him in the 2024 presidential race, harris energizes democrats in transformed presidential race, many americans are confident the 2024 election will be conducted fairly, but wide partisan differences remain, joe biden, public opinion and his withdrawal from the 2024 race, most popular, report materials.

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