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Intersections of Health Inequities, COVID-19, and Kidney Disease Care in 2020
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13.1 Sociological Perspectives on Health and Health Care

Learning objective.

List the assumptions of the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives on health and medicine.

Before discussing these perspectives, we must first define three key concepts—health, medicine, and health care—that lie at the heart of their explanations and of this chapter’s discussion. Health refers to the extent of a person’s physical, mental, and social well-being. As this definition suggests, health is a multidimensional concept. Although the three dimensions of health just listed often affect each other, it is possible for someone to be in good physical health and poor mental health, or vice versa. Medicine refers to the social institution that seeks to prevent, diagnose, and treat illness and to promote health in its various dimensions. This social institution in the United States is vast, to put it mildly, and involves more than 11 million people (physicians, nurses, dentists, therapists, medical records technicians, and many other occupations). Finally, health care refers to the provision of medical services to prevent, diagnose, and treat health problems.

With these definitions in mind, we now turn to sociological explanations of health and health care. As usual, the major sociological perspectives that we have discussed throughout this book offer different types of explanations, but together they provide us with a more comprehensive understanding than any one approach can do by itself. Table 13.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes what they say.

Table 13.1 Theory Snapshot

Theoretical perspective	Major assumptions
Functionalism	Good health and effective medical care are essential for the smooth functioning of society. Patients must perform the “sick role” in order to be perceived as legitimately ill and to be exempt from their normal obligations. The physician-patient relationship is hierarchical: The physician provides instructions, and the patient needs to follow them.
Conflict theory	Social inequality characterizes the quality of health and the quality of health care. People from disadvantaged social backgrounds are more likely to become ill and to receive inadequate health care. Partly to increase their incomes, physicians have tried to control the practice of medicine and to define social problems as medical problems.
Symbolic interactionism	Health and illness are : Physical and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill conditions only if they are defined as such by a society. Physicians “manage the situation” to display their authority and medical knowledge.

The Functionalist Approach

As conceived by Talcott Parsons (1951), the functionalist perspective emphasizes that good health and effective medical care are essential for a society’s ability to function. Ill health impairs our ability to perform our roles in society, and if too many people are unhealthy, society’s functioning and stability suffer. This was especially true for premature death, said Parsons, because it prevents individuals from fully carrying out all their social roles and thus represents a “poor return” to society for the various costs of pregnancy, birth, child care, and socialization of the individual who ends up dying early. Poor medical care is likewise dysfunctional for society, as people who are ill face greater difficulty in becoming healthy and people who are healthy are more likely to become ill.

For a person to be considered legitimately sick, said Parsons, several expectations must be met. He referred to these expectations as the sick role . First, sick people should not be perceived as having caused their own health problem. If we eat high-fat food, become obese, and have a heart attack, we evoke less sympathy than if we had practiced good nutrition and maintained a proper weight. If someone is driving drunk and smashes into a tree, there is much less sympathy than if the driver had been sober and skidded off the road in icy weather.

Second, sick people must want to get well. If they do not want to get well or, worse yet, are perceived as faking their illness or malingering after becoming healthier, they are no longer considered legitimately ill by the people who know them or, more generally, by society itself.

Third, sick people are expected to have their illness confirmed by a physician or other health-care professional and to follow the professional’s instructions in order to become well. If a sick person fails to do so, she or he again loses the right to perform the sick role.

Talcott Parsons wrote that for a person to be perceived as legitimately ill, several expectations, called the sick role, must be met. These expectations include the perception that the person did not cause her or his own health problem.

Nathalie Babineau-Griffith – grand-maman’s blanket – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

If all these expectations are met, said Parsons, sick people are treated as sick by their family, their friends, and other people they know, and they become exempt from their normal obligations to all these people. Sometimes they are even told to stay in bed when they want to remain active.

Physicians also have a role to perform, said Parsons. First and foremost, they have to diagnose the person’s illness, decide how to treat it, and help the person become well. To do so, they need the cooperation of the patient, who must answer the physician’s questions accurately and follow the physician’s instructions. Parsons thus viewed the physician-patient relationship as hierarchical: the physician gives the orders (or, more accurately, provides advice and instructions), and the patient follows them.

Parsons was certainly right in emphasizing the importance of individuals’ good health for society’s health, but his perspective has been criticized for several reasons. First, his idea of the sick role applies more to acute (short-term) illness than to chronic (long-term) illness. Although much of his discussion implies a person temporarily enters a sick role and leaves it soon after following adequate medical care, people with chronic illnesses can be locked into a sick role for a very long time or even permanently. Second, Parsons’s discussion ignores the fact, mentioned earlier, that our social backgrounds affect the likelihood of becoming ill and the quality of medical care we receive. Third, Parsons wrote approvingly of the hierarchy implicit in the physician-patient relationship. Many experts say today that patients need to reduce this hierarchy by asking more questions of their physicians and by taking a more active role in maintaining their health. To the extent that physicians do not always provide the best medical care, the hierarchy that Parsons favored is at least partly to blame.

The Conflict Approach

The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and of health-care delivery (Weitz, 2013). As noted earlier, the quality of health and health care differs greatly around the world and within the United States. Society’s inequities along social class, race and ethnicity, and gender lines are reproduced in our health and health care. People from disadvantaged social backgrounds are more likely to become ill, and once they do become ill, inadequate health care makes it more difficult for them to become well. As we will see, the evidence of disparities in health and health care is vast and dramatic.

The conflict approach also critiques efforts by physicians over the decades to control the practice of medicine and to define various social problems as medical ones. Physicians’ motivation for doing so has been both good and bad. On the good side, they have believed they are the most qualified professionals to diagnose problems and to treat people who have these problems. On the negative side, they have also recognized that their financial status will improve if they succeed in characterizing social problems as medical problems and in monopolizing the treatment of these problems. Once these problems become “medicalized,” their possible social roots and thus potential solutions are neglected.

Several examples illustrate conflict theory’s criticism. Alternative medicine is becoming increasingly popular, but so has criticism of it by the medical establishment. Physicians may honestly feel that medical alternatives are inadequate, ineffective, or even dangerous, but they also recognize that the use of these alternatives is financially harmful to their own practices. Eating disorders also illustrate conflict theory’s criticism. Many of the women and girls who have eating disorders receive help from a physician, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, or another health-care professional. Although this care is often very helpful, the definition of eating disorders as a medical problem nonetheless provides a good source of income for the professionals who treat it and obscures its cultural roots in society’s standard of beauty for women (Whitehead & Kurz, 2008).

Obstetrical care provides another example. In most of human history, midwives or their equivalent were the people who helped pregnant women deliver their babies. In the nineteenth century, physicians claimed they were better trained than midwives and won legislation giving them authority to deliver babies. They may have honestly felt that midwives were inadequately trained, but they also fully recognized that obstetrical care would be quite lucrative (Ehrenreich & English, 2005).

A collage of the expectations of ADD/ADHD.

According to conflict theory, physicians have often sought to define various social problems as medical problems. An example is the development of the diagnosis of ADHD, or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

birgerking – What I Really Do… ADD/ADHD – CC BY 2.0.

In a final example, many hyperactive children are now diagnosed with ADHD, or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. A generation or more ago, they would have been considered merely as overly active. After Ritalin, a drug that reduces hyperactivity, was developed, their behavior came to be considered a medical problem and the ADHD diagnosis was increasingly applied, and tens of thousands of children went to physicians’ offices and were given Ritalin or similar drugs. The definition of their behavior as a medical problem was very lucrative for physicians and for the company that developed Ritalin, and it also obscured the possible roots of their behavior in inadequate parenting, stultifying schools, or even gender socialization, as most hyperactive kids are boys (Conrad, 2008; Rao & Seaton, 2010).

Critics say the conflict approach’s assessment of health and medicine is overly harsh and its criticism of physicians’ motivation far too cynical. Scientific medicine has greatly improved the health of people around the world. Although physicians are certainly motivated, as many people are, by economic considerations, their efforts to extend their scope into previously nonmedical areas also stem from honest beliefs that people’s health and lives will improve if these efforts succeed. Certainly there is some truth in this criticism of the conflict approach, but the evidence of inequality in health and medicine and of the negative aspects of the medical establishment’s motivation for extending its reach remains compelling.

The Symbolic Interactionist Approach

The symbolic interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social constructions . This means that various physical and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill conditions only if they are defined as such by a society and its members (Buckser, 2009; Lorber & Moore, 2002). The ADHD example just discussed also illustrates symbolic interactionist theory’s concerns, as a behavior that was not previously considered an illness came to be defined as one after the development of Ritalin. In another example first discussed in Chapter 7 “Alcohol and Other Drugs” , in the late 1800s opium use was quite common in the United States, as opium derivatives were included in all sorts of over-the-counter products. Opium use was considered neither a major health nor legal problem. That changed by the end of the century, as prejudice against Chinese Americans led to the banning of the opium dens (similar to today’s bars) they frequented, and calls for the banning of opium led to federal legislation early in the twentieth century that banned most opium products except by prescription (Musto, 2002).

In a more current example, an attempt to redefine obesity is now under way in the United States. Obesity is a known health risk, but a “fat pride” or “fat acceptance” movement composed mainly of heavy individuals is arguing that obesity’s health risks are exaggerated and calling attention to society’s discrimination against overweight people. Although such discrimination is certainly unfortunate, critics say the movement is going too far in trying to minimize obesity’s risks (Diamond, 2011).

The symbolic interactionist approach has also provided important studies of the interaction between patients and health-care professionals. Consciously or not, physicians “manage the situation” to display their authority and medical knowledge. Patients usually have to wait a long time for the physician to show up, and the physician is often in a white lab coat; the physician is also often addressed as “Doctor,” while patients are often called by their first name. Physicians typically use complex medical terms to describe a patient’s illness instead of the more simple terms used by laypeople and the patients themselves.

Management of the situation is perhaps especially important during a gynecological exam, as first discussed in Chapter 12 “Work and the Economy” . When the physician is a man, this situation is fraught with potential embarrassment and uneasiness because a man is examining and touching a woman’s genital area. Under these circumstances, the physician must act in a purely professional manner. He must indicate no personal interest in the woman’s body and must instead treat the exam no differently from any other type of exam. To further “desex” the situation and reduce any potential uneasiness, a female nurse is often present during the exam.

Critics fault the symbolic interactionist approach for implying that no illnesses have objective reality. Many serious health conditions do exist and put people at risk for their health regardless of what they or their society thinks. Critics also say the approach neglects the effects of social inequality for health and illness. Despite these possible faults, the symbolic interactionist approach reminds us that health and illness do have a subjective as well as an objective reality.

Key Takeaways

A sociological understanding emphasizes the influence of people’s social backgrounds on the quality of their health and health care. A society’s culture and social structure also affect health and health care.
The functionalist approach emphasizes that good health and effective health care are essential for a society’s ability to function, and it views the physician-patient relationship as hierarchical.
The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and in the quality of health care.
The interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social constructions; physical and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill conditions only if they are defined as such by a society and its members.

For Your Review

Which approach—functionalist, conflict, or symbolic interactionist—do you most favor regarding how you understand health and health care? Explain your answer.
Think of the last time you visited a physician or another health-care professional. In what ways did this person come across as an authority figure possessing medical knowledge? In formulating your answer, think about the person’s clothing, body position and body language, and other aspects of nonverbal communication.

Buckser, A. (2009). Institutions, agency, and illness in the making of Tourette syndrome. Human Organization, 68 (3), 293–306.

Conrad, P. (2008). The medicalization of society: On the transformation of human conditions into treatable disorders . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Diamond, A. (2011). Acceptance of fat as the norm is a cause for concern. Nursing Standard, 25 (38), 28–28.

Lorber, J., & Moore, L. J. (2002). Gender and the social construction of illness (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Musto, D. F. (Ed.). (2002). Drugs in America: A documentary history . New York, NY: New York University Press.

Parsons, T. (1951). The social system . New York, NY: Free Press.

Rao, A., & Seaton, M. (2010). The way of boys: Promoting the social and emotional development of young boys . New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Weitz, R. (2013). The sociology of health, illness, and health care: A critical approach (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Wadsworth.

Whitehead, K., & Kurz, T. (2008). Saints, sinners and standards of femininity: Discursive constructions of anorexia nervosa and obesity in women’s magazines. Journal of Gender Studies, 17 , 345–358.

Sociology and Health

First Online: 23 March 2022

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Mat Jones 3

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Illness can seem random; yet, an extensive body of evidence suggests that health and disease are patterned in complex ways suggesting a more systematic and social process of disease causation. The first part of this chapter explores the social patterning of health and illness. Evidence linking social divisions, such as class, gender and ethnicity, with experiences of health and healthcare is examined. Sociology contributes to finding explanations for the persistence of social inequalities in health, as well as strategies to eliminate or reduce them.

Part 2 of the chapter explores the methodological approaches of sociology. Sociologists have looked beyond the assumed altruism of health professionals to examine the individual, group and social impact of professional practice. Sociology relies on both evidence and theory. In addition to a critical examination of evidence such as mortality rates, sociology involves the development and testing of theoretical frameworks and perspectives that seek to explain patterns of health and illness.

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Jones, M. (2022). Sociology and Health. In: Naidoo, J., Wills, J. (eds) Health Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2149-9_7

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Sociology and Health

Jimoh amzat.

3 Department of Sociology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria

Oliver Razum

4 AG3 Epidemiology & Intern Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany

Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of social sciences (especially sociology) to health issues. In general, it is often a challenge to discuss the nexus between social science and health. Why medical sociology? What does sociology have to do with medicine or health? This chapter aims to answer these questions. It starts with the meaning of sociology and its links to health studies—a definition and brief history of medical sociology and topic description of the discipline. All health problems are conceived as social problems, which are the core focus of sociological studies. This chapter explains the characteristics of social problems with regard to health issues. Health problems are viewed as parts of social pathologies by advancing the sociological dimensions of health problems. The chapter then attempts to re-explain the topical description of medical sociology (first advanced by David Mechanic in 1968) and includes some current issues. The topical descriptions specifically include social aetiology of disease, cultural beliefs and social response to illness, sociology of medical care and hospitals, sociology of psychiatry, social transition and health care, traditional medicine (alternative medicine), sociology of bioethics, health policy and politics, social epidemiology, sociology of dying and death, and medical education.

Introduction

Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of sociology to health issues. In general, it is often a challenge to discuss the nexus between social science and health. Why medical sociology? What does sociology have to do with medicine or health? These are some of the pressing questions that require explanations. The fundamental problem starts with a lack of deeper knowledge of the meaning and focus of sociology. Therefore, it is necessary to proceed by defining sociology and briefly explaining some of its foundational focus. After this, its relevance to health will be explained.

Sociology has been variously defined since Auguste Comte coined the term in 1838. Simply, sociology is the study of human society and social problems. Sociology is the scientific study of social relations, institutions, and society (Smelser 1994 ) . In addition, sociology can be defined as the scientific study of the dynamics of society and their intricate connection to patterns of behaviour. It focuses on social structure and how the structures interact to modify human behaviour, actions, opportunities, and how the patterns of social existence engender social problems. Social institutions include kinship, economic, political, education, and religious institutions. The institutions are like pillars that hold up society because they are the constituent parts of the social system (society). These parts are interdependent and interrelated with specialised functions towards the survival of the society. This is why the human society is often referred to as a social system. Every institution fulfils some functional imperatives. The family institution supports the procreation and socialisation of new members of society while the economic institution deals with the production and exchange of goods. The economic institution employs people from the family institutions, and the family in turn needs the goods and services produced by the economic institution. The health institutions are organised to cater to the well-being and survival of human beings.

Generally, sociology employs scientific approach to study and develops generalisations about human patterns, groupings, and behaviour. In a more concise definition, the American Sociological Association (ASA) defined sociology “as the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behaviour”. Social life is the most central part of the focus of sociology; it implies the connection which an individual holds with others in the society. To sociologists, social life or interaction is the essence of human existence. The process of social interaction itself may put individuals at risk of some communicable disease such as tuberculosis (TB) , severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) , and measles. In terms of communicable diseases, mere contact with an infected person (in the process of social interaction) can normally put others at risk. The investigation of social “causes” and consequences is basic in sociological research. There is often a problem of biomedical reductionism , assuming “only the germ causes the disease” without an interrogation of the social conditions enabling vulnerability to diseases. For instance, commercial sex work puts an individual more at risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) than many other occupation groups: that is a kind of occupational condition, which is a risk factor for HIV.

Health Problems as Social Problems

The historical focus of sociology is on social problems in human society. Social problems include health problems, crime , deviance, violence , poverty , inequality, population problems, delinquency, and institutional instability. Social forces such as modernisation and industrialisation marked the beginning of unprecedented social alteration, especially since the beginning of the eighteenth century. This social change led to a number of problems as a result of changes in the relations of production. The industrial revolution led to new forms of production systems, community relations, migration , urbanisation , and especially new forms of employer-employee relations. Industrialisation marked the overthrow of the family as an economic unit. This was a tremendous change in the social system with resultant consequences, hence emerging social problems such as unemployment, poverty, child labour , gender discrimination, crime, and health problems. This is not to argue that all these problems only emerged during the industrial revolution , but they rapidly multiplied during that period. Social problems are conceived as strains within the system, seen as the product of certain objective conditions within the society, which is inimical or detrimental to the realisation of some norms or values for members of the society (Lyman et al. 1973 , p. 474) . Any issue that threatens the well-being or survival of the society is regarded as a social problem. Weber ( 1995 , p. 9) defined social problems “as a social phenomenon that is damaging to the society or its members, is perceived as such, and is socially remediable.”

It is important to note that just as crime is damaging to the society or individual, so is any health problem. Apart from this fact, a social problem can be identified through the following characteristics, which include:

It is an objective condition. This implies that it can be empirically defined. A social problem exists as a condition that can be verified. Even when subjective interpretation may be required, a social problem is an evidence-based problem, not just mere perception of an individual but a general knowledge that is usually definite. This represents a utilitarian view, which holds that social problems are objective things, or what Durkheim regarded as social facts (Smelser 1996 ) . Smelser observed that the assertion is like the medical model which views social problems as a form of disease with an identifiable cause, definite symptoms, and calls for a cure.
It has social aetiology or could be linked to it. This implies that a social problem emanates from the pattern of social interaction, organisation, association, or simply is engendered by social conditions. This point should be noted as a relevant perspective in explanation of human health/diseases and not an absolute explanation. For instance, Wellcome ( 2002 , p. 30), summarising Day Karen’s research report, observed that “… Falciparum parasite [malaria] we see today arose about 3200–7000 years ago—an era that coincides with the dawn of agriculture in Africa . This was a time of massive ecological change, when humans began to live in large communities and the rainforest was being cut down for slash-and-burn agriculture… there was also a major change in the mosquito vector at that time, when it began biting humans instead of animals… ” It is further observed that P. falciparum migrated with Africans to other parts of the world. This means that the process of migration aids the spread of malaria . This is why Smelser ( 1996 ) also observed that the increasing world traffic of people would internationalise many health problems. It is for this reason that HIV, first diagnosed in the United States in the early 1980s (Jackson 2002 ) , is now a global problem. Moreover, some diseases are rooted in genetics or heredity, thereby multiplying through marriage patterns or human relationships. Holtz et al. ( 2006 , p. 1665) observed that it is impossible to understand population health without considering the social origins of diseases—“the risk of exposure, host susceptibility, course of disease, and disease outcome; each is shaped by the social matrix… ” Social conditions are now invoked as fundamental causes of diseases in human society because such conditions affect exposure to diseases, as well as course and outcomes of diseases (see Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_4 for social determinants of health, Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6#Sec5 for fundamental cause theory).
It poses social damage. A social problem often incapacitates the individuals in a society. As poverty prevents individuals from satisfying basic needs, so, too, health problems prevent individuals from functioning effectively as members of society. A health problem may reduce the functionality of an individual within the social system . Invariably, a social problem is inconsistent with the normative value of the society. Society wants its members to be healthy, and the unattainability of this desire shows a discrepancy between social value and reality. Such a discrepancy represents a social problem.
It affects the collectivity. A social problem is different from a personal problem in that the former affects a substantial number of people in the social system (see Harris 2013 ) . Health problems are ubiquitous like other problems such as crime and poverty. There may be a geographical variation in the magnitude or frequency, but most social problems are a pandemic. It is thus a problem when a significant number of people believe that a certain condition is, in fact, a problem (Kerbo and Coleman 2007 ) , and it constitute a problem to their social existence or wellbeing.
It requires social action. Social problems require collective action. The solution to any social problem does not reside in just any individual; it requires the majority to act in order to ameliorate the problem. It may necessitate institutional or community approaches. Health problems also require collective action. This is why there has been a lot of implementation of research and policy engagement to improve the health of the people. This is also why health issues often appear in development agendas.

The aforementioned attributes qualify health problems as social problems. This is separate from the social dimensions of health problems, which will be examined later in this book. Health problems can also come with other dimensions apart from the aforementioned attributes. It may not only be socially damaging but also biologically damaging. Often, a health problem may move from being biological pathology to social pathology or vice versa. Whichever form it takes, it constitutes a pathology that must be remedied by the society. Sociology has been relevant ever since Comte conceived it as a science that would provide salvation from all the social problems confronting the world. Improved relevance of sociology in human society will alleviate human suffering and provide equitable well-being. Therefore, the application of sociological methods and perspective and attention to the social dimensions of disease should provide a vital step forward in disease control.

Apart from the fact that health problems constitute a major social problem, it is important to further stress the relevance of sociology to health. First, in this case, it is human health. It is about the people, community, and society. The health of the society cannot be grasped without understanding the intricacies of the community or society itself. George Simmel conceived of human society as an intricate web of multiple relations—of people in constant interaction with one another (Coser 2004 ) , of people who are bound with common fate, norms, values, socio-spatial conditions, exposures, and opportunities. It is about the health of people who build and share similar health institutions or who live, for instance, in an African rainforest where they are exposed to mosquito bites every day. It is also about the health of the community that has access or otherwise to simple preventive measures for malaria or diarrhoea. Health is about the society where there is self-accountability to take up smoking and bear the associated health risks. As mentioned earlier, any issue concerning the social collectivity is of enormous interest to sociology. Simply, health is one such issue of interest because it concerns the people and also affects the patterns of social interaction.

Apart from focusing on the people, health is intrinsic to human functioning or existence. It confers a form of capacity on the individual to perform social functions in human society. Human value or existence is enhanced by good health. Good health is instrumental to human survival and is required to strive for the basic necessities of life. As a contributing member of the social systems , one needs good health, and lack of this threatens the pattern of social interaction with other members in the social system. Health indicators have been used to assess the level of development in a society. It is also used as a measure of chance of survival in human societies. This is why health is a social value both at the individual and collective levels.

Medical Sociology Defined

Medical sociology is simply the application of sociological perspectives and methods in the study of health issues in human societies with a skewed focus on the sociocultural milieu that accounts for human health and illness. These perspectives include sociological theories and tools, which can be applied in the analysis of human health. In this case, the individual is examined as a member of the society, who partakes in the day-to-day functioning of the social system. The pre-comprehension is that humans exist within a socio-spatial milieu, which often affects their health. Such social conditions and the nature of human interaction are instrumental to the well-being of every individual in society. It is also assumed that the nature of social interaction and networking is a part of the determinants of human health. Sociologists are interested in issues regarding human health and employ systematic procedures to examine social phenomena. They have relied on quantitative and qualitative techniques to establish universal laws governing human societies. The essence of the methods is to look at the social links that can explain sociocultural linkages to health issues. In any case, medical sociology is the application of sociological theories, knowledge, and concepts to issues of health and illness (Hafferty and Castellani 2006 ) .

Medical sociology can also be defined as the scientific study of the social patterning of health. In this case, it is a study of how social factors (e.g., class, race, gender, religion , ethnicity, kinship network, marriage, educational status, age, place , and cultural practices) influence human health. The idea of social patterning indicates that these social factors could be the determinants of human health status (see Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_4). It is in this sense that some diseases may be referred to as diseases of poverty (e.g., malaria and TB) because they are much more prevalent in poor regions or among the poor. For example, a person residing in a slum is at a higher risk of being exposed to certain diseases which a person in affluent area may have lower risk of being exposed to. Medical sociology is distinct in its approach because it considers the “import that social and structural factors have on the disease and illness processes as well as on the organisation and delivery of health care” (Hafferty and Castellani 2006 , p. 334) . Hafferty and Castellani further observed that these factors also include culture (e.g., values, beliefs, normative expectations), organisational processes (e.g., hospital setting), politics (e.g., health care policy, health budget, political ideology), economic system (e.g., capitalism , the costs of health care), and microlevel processes such as socialisation and identity formation.

Apart from pure research, medical sociologists are also interested in implementation or applied research. This involves the implementation of interventions to improve the health of the population through community engagement and participation in policy formulation and implementation. As Kaminskas and Darulis ( 2007 ) noted, medical sociologists utilise applied sociological methods—such as needs assessment, social impact assessment, and case management options—in health care settings using evaluation research methods. This area of applied research has attracted a lot of grants and promoted collaboration with others in the medical field through a multidisciplinary approach to health management .

Cockerham ( 2001 ) further observed that medical sociology has actually established itself as a strong subfield of sociology and removed itself from being a subordinate of medicine. He provided four major reasons for the strong academic locus of the subfield. First, the extension of focus from acute to chronic diseases strengthens the relevance of sociology to medicine because of the key roles of social condition and social behaviour in the prevention, onset, and management of chronic disorders. Medical sociologists are more relevant in the analysis of social conditions of health than physicians. Second, medical sociology has focused extensively on issues relating to clinical medicine and health policy . Third, success over the years in medical sociological research has promoted the professional status of medical sociologists in the analysis of the social patterning of health. Fourth, medical sociologists have studied medical practice and policies—at times with a critical stance to expose some blind spots .

A Brief History of Medical Sociology

Medical sociology has become a substantive subfield of sociology . It can be argued that medical sociology began with the conception of sociology by August Comte ( 1896 ) through his concept of organismic analogy . This can be a deductive argument since Comte did not intend to establish medical sociology as a subfield and did not attach the importance of sociocultural issues in health. Comte, and later Herbert Spencer ( 1891 , 1896 ) , extensively compared human society to a biological being. Spencer observed that the universe consists of organic (living), inorganic (nonliving) and super-organic (society) entities. The idea of organismic analogy is that the human society has similar characteristics as that of the biological organism. The similarities include growth and development, differentiation of parts, specialisation of functions, interrelatedness, and interdependence of parts. The parts of the society include the social institutions, which work harmoniously for the survival of the society. The argument further relates that if one part is damaged, it will adversely affect other parts of the society. Health institution may be affected if the political institution is corrupt or not responsive to aspirations of the citizens. This is part of the reasons why strong political will is required in implementation of health programs.

The theory of Marx and Engels explains that economic infrastructure is the foundation on which other superstructures of the society rely. Inequalities in income translate to other forms of inequalities in human society, including health inequalities . This is why Marx’s proposition has been widely applied in all facets of life including health inequalities, accessibility to health care and allocation and distribution of health resources and infrastructures (see Sects. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6#Sec2 and 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6#Sec3 for further elaboration). Another major landmark is the work of Emile Durkheim ( 1897/1951 ) on suicide . This is directly related to medical sociology since it is about the issue of death. Durkheimian perspective on suicide will be explained in detail later (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_5#Sec6 for further elaboration). The perspective examines the influence of social factors in self-termination of life. Durkheim identifies two major factors, which fluctuate to increase or decrease propensity to suicide. These factors are social regulation and integration. This has been a major sociological perspective in the analysis of suicide because it was a theory derived from empirical investigations. The works of Max Weber on bureaucratic rationality and social action have also been substantially applied in medical sociology to explain the organisation of health care institutions and why and how people care for others (see Sects. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_7#Sec4 and 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_7#Sec9 for further elaboration) .

At the time these classical sociological scholars (August Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx) were writing, they did not have medical sociology in mind; however, their works provided the landmark for the development of a subfield of sociology called medical sociology. The works created the foundation for the emergence of sociological perspectives and methods that can be applied in the study of social patterning of health.

In 1848 Rudolf Virchow (a German physician) laid the foundation of social medicine (Holtz et al. 2006 ) by advocating for the relevance and consideration of social factors in human health and disease. While this set a new agenda for medicine, it opened a wide passage for the social sciences involvement in the understanding of human health. The early 1900s marked the beginning in the study of sociological dimension of medicine, especially with the works of Charles McIntire (“The Importance of the Study of Medical Sociology,” published in 1894), along with other scholarly works of that period including the book by Elizabeth Blackwell ( 1902 ) and another by James P. Warbasse ( 1909 ), both on medical sociology (Bloom 2002 ; Hafferty and Castellani 2006 , p. 332) .

In the 1950s, Talcott Parsons ( 1951 ) published a groundbreaking work with a section on the application of functionalism in medical sociology. He dedicated a substantial part of his work to the elaboration of the sick role , explaining the social trajectories of the sick within the social system and how the health institutions can support individuals to return to normal roles in the society (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_5#Sec4 for further elaboration). Parsons recognised the relevance of medicine for the society and drew attention to illness as a form of social deviance and the importance of sick role as a mechanism of social control (Freidson 1962 ; Stacey and Homans 1978 ). This is the first conscious application of sociological theory in the understanding of human illness. The sick role concept facilitated the expansion of other areas of research including the patient-physician relationship, illness behaviour, medicalisation of deviance, and medical professionalism (Hafferty and Castellani 2006 ) . The works of Freidson ( 1961a/1962 , 1961b ) and Mechanic ( 1966 , 1968 ) also promoted the relevance and understanding of medical sociology.

Conrad ( 2007 ) described Eliot Freidson’s works as revolutionary in medical sociology. Freidson (1961, 1970a , 1975 ) devoted his time to the study of professionalism and professionalisation in medicine which presents a comprehensive view of the social and professional dynamics of medicine with a particular reference to how disease and illness are constructed, power relations between the physician and patients, division of labour, ethical conducts, increasing commercialism, and bureaucratic control in medical practice. Freidson’s works were landmarks in the development of medical sociology. He practically demonstrated the relevance of sociology in medicine and health studies in general by situating his studies within applied domains .

During the same period, Glaser and Strauss ( 1965 , 1968 ) also examined the social process of death and dying, and Erving Goffman ( 1961 , 1963 ) released a masterpiece, Asylums , which introduced the concept of stigma and total institution (see Sects. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8#Sec6 and 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8#Sec11 for further elaboration). The Asylums focused mainly on the study of mental health patients and health care institutions. It was a remarkable breakthrough in the application of medical sociology to the study of health care institutions. The work of Goffman has been one of the most successful sociological pieces in the management of patients and health care institutions. The concern of this subsection is to trace the development of medical sociology: Chapters 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_5, 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6, 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_7, and 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8 will expand some of the substantive theories of medical sociology.

The development of academic journals (e.g., Journal of Health and Social Behaviour ; Social Science and Medicine ; Sociology of Health and Illness in 1979) in the discipline, especially in the 1960s, also aided the development of the discipline (Hafferty and Castellani 2006 ) ; and now there are many other dedicated and related journals including Health and Place , Health Affairs , Women and Health , Reproductive Health Matters , Social Theory and Health , Medical Anthropology , The Lancet , Social History of Medicine , and many others .

Furthermore, not only do medical sociologists proclaim self-relevance to medicine but medical scientists have increasingly come to the realisation that a number of significant health care issues are outside the walls of the hospitals, pharmaceutical and medical laboratories. Clausen ( 1963 , p. 1) observed that it has become apparent that “the understanding of health and disease requires a holistic approach in which the social and cultural aspects of human behaviour are appropriately related to the biological nature of every human being and the physical environment in which he[/she] lives.” Clausen further observed that the emphasis upon the holistic approach to medical science and comprehensive health care has moved medicine to seek the services of social scientists, notably in connection with public health , preventive medicine, and psychiatry. In short, there is an unprecedented sociolisation of medicine, a term used by Barbour ( 2011 ) to describe how sociology has come to shape the profession of medicine, and to add to it, how sociology shapes the understanding of health and illness in the society.

From the 1960s onwards, there has been increasing popularisation of medical sociology with many departments of sociology now having specialisation in medical sociology as an option, especially for graduate programs. Cockerham has observed that medical sociology comprises one of the largest and most active sociological specialties in the developed world and the subdiscipline is expanding in Asia, Africa , Latin America, and other regions. Specifically, Africa has not been left out in this development as medical sociology is now recognised as a subfield of sociology. Medical sociology is growing in strength and importance in South Africa (Gilbert 2012 ) like in other African countries. There is a growing realisation that social issues are relevant and significant in explaining population health in Africa and elsewhere. The study of sexual behaviour and other social aspects of HIV/AIDS seemingly demonstrate the sociological milieu in the understanding of health. The first crops of medical sociologists in Africa were trained in western societies, specifically in the United Kingdom and United States . Now, the number of those trained in Africa is increasing, coupled with a demand for medical sociologists in health intervention in Africa.

Many medical sociologists from Africa now partner with their counterparts from other continents in addressing international health. Medical sociologists also collaborate with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to address social determinants of health in communities. Likewise, there are many social science institutes in Africa (e.g., the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa [CODESRIA]), which have incorporated health discourse as a priority. The introduction of the Health Institute by CODESRIA to train and offer small grants to young social scientists interested in health issues is part of this brilliant effort .

Topical Description of Medical Sociology

Many scholars have described medical sociology in various ways: sociology of health and illness or health sociology. “Medical sociology” is more encompassing to describe the broad aspect of sociology dealing with medicine and health in general. One particular description is that of Straus ( 1957 ) , who averred that medical sociology consists of sociology of medicine and sociology in medicine . Straus ( 1957 , p. 203) observed that “[s]tudies of the profession (of medicine) and those dealing with the organization of health resources are primarily in the sociology of medicine [while] teaching activities and research in which the sociologist is collaborating with the physician in studying a disease process or factors influencing the patient’s response to illness are primarily sociology in medicine.” Straus made the distinction as a result of activities and affiliations of 110 medical sociologists.

Straus ( 1999 , p. 109) further reiterated that sociology in medicine involves “activities that were associated with achieving the educational, research, or clinical goals of medicine. These were often collaborative with health professionals and occurred within health or medical institutions. They were carried out most frequently by sociologists who held appointments in health professional-schools, hospitals, or other health-care organisations.” On the other hand, sociology of medicine is close to what could be described as sociology of health and illness. It involves the study of social factors in disease aetiology, incidence, prevalence, distribution, social response to health and illness, therapeutic process, and community health needs .

Initially, Straus ( 1957 ) thought it was not feasible for a sociologist to engage in the sociology in and of medicine together; however, later he ( 1999 ) observed that because of crosscutting intellectual development, it is now feasible. Therefore, the distinction “of and in” is merely the distinction of activities, not that of persons involved. Medical sociology has now grown into a full subdiscipline of sociology with more diverged activities as a result of intellectual and research domains. It is now possible to present a topical description of medical sociology without a topical differentiation between that of sociology in or of medicine. Therefore, another major concern of students of sociology or professional is a clear topical description of medical sociology. It is imperative to explain the intellectual domain of medical sociology. The first major attempt at this was by David Mechanic ( 1968 ) , who highlighted a number of intellectual domains of medical sociology. Apart from the fact that there are still some new developments, a re-explanation of some of the domains in line with currents trends is necessary.

Social Aetiology of Disease

Medical sociology primarily focuses on the social causes of disease. Social causationism entails direct and indirect (social) exposure to diseases. While a medical doctor will simply note that a patient has HIV, a sociologist is more interested in the sexual network of the patient since HIV can be acquired through the process of sexual interaction with others in the society. This pattern of sexual relation is a social determinant. Another explanation is that the decision to engage in protective sex is entirely that of the parties involved. A medical sociologist is more interested in the “push” factors that expose individuals to any disease. Another example is the high prevalence of vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) . There are many social issues that expose women to the risk of VVF, which include age at marriage, access to maternal care, maternal education, and gender inequality , which prevent many women from obtaining permission for their partners to attend health facilities. Some of these issues are sociocultural issues, which need to be addressed in order to reduce the incidence of VVF in SSA.

The notion of social aetiology is embedded in risk factors, most of which occur at the individual or societal level (see Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_4 on social determinants of health) ; however, some risks have to do with the norms and values of the societies. For instance, a culture which promotes gender inequality or male hegemony puts women at a risk of gender violence including sexual abuse and female infanticide . The assertion that lifestyle and living conditions could expose individuals to diseases is not new and has been a major focal point in preventive medicine. Particularly in the developing world, vulnerability to disease often has less to do with germs than with the so-called social causes—factors such as income, education, gender, occupation , housing , and access to health services. Social deprivation is a key predictor of distribution of diseases and life expectancy . The social causes also include poor sanitation, nutritional deficiencies, poor infrastructures (e.g., water supply), lack of safety at work, overcrowded or poorly maintained housing , environmental pollution, stress, and lack of exercise due to a sedentary lifestyle. The social causes can also be explained in terms of the lack of education on preventive measures or appropriate health behaviour.

These social causes often found in the social condition of the individuals or societies constitute the primary crux of medical sociology. The relevance of medical sociology can be assessed based on the efforts in addressing these social causes.

Cultural Beliefs and Social Response to Illness

Cultural beliefs and responses have direct consequences for both preventive measures and cure-seeking behaviour. Illness perception is usually conceived in terms of local definition of the illness—its perceived cause(s), vulnerability, severity, and perceived modes of transmission. This illness perception or local understanding and cultural beliefs also constitute a part of the core focus of medical sociology. There is a cultural repertoire for recognising, diagnosing, or defining the illness condition (Alubo 2008 ; Erinosho 2006 ) . Illness is a deviation from societal norms and values, usually manifested through failure of an individual to perform his/her normal roles in the society. The course of illness is determined not merely by biomedical factors but also by the way the patients define and respond to the illness.

The response to illness often reflects a society’s medical beliefs about the causes of health problems, choices of treatment options, and other health-related concerns. Feyisetan et al. ( 1997 ) noted that certain disease-specific and non-disease-specific cultural beliefs may influence people’s health and health-seeking behaviour. This is why it is important to consider cultural beliefs and practices of the people when designing measures and programs aimed at improving their health (Comoro et al. 2003 ; Feyisetan and Adeokan 1992 ; Jegede 2002 ). It is further noted that the adoption of both preventive and curative methods may also depend on people’s conception of the causes of illness and on their level of conviction about the efficacy of the preventive and curative methods (Feyisetan et al. 1997 ) .

For instance, at the beginning of the HIV crisis in Africa , the problem was about people’s belief in the reality of the disease. For several years, the “HIV is real” campaign was widespread. The response then was very weak. In general, people who doubt the reality of a disease would not adopt any preventive measure. By the time the reality of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) was incontrovertible (at least to the general majority), the havoc had already been caused—HIV has eaten deep into all fabrics of the society and thousands of people are losing their lives daily. Additionally, there were a lot of causal misconceptions surrounding HIV/AIDS at the societal level, which also stymies adoption of both preventive and treatment options.

Sociology of Medical Care and Hospital

The concerns of this aspect are on the sociocultural aspects of medical care and hospital as a (social) institution. There are often options in medical care, especially traditional and modern approaches (Alubo 2008 ) . This interaction of plural systems of health care may be complementary, competitive, or even conflicting. Choice is usually modified by the cultural belief system in the community. Another main issue is the cost of seeking medical care in relation to affordability and quality of services from medical institutions. These are interwoven issues that have constituted focal points in medical care. Another significant issue is the gender context of medical care and hospital. Analysis of gender issues in terms of care providers and receivers is vital in medical care. At times, experts analyse the importance of cultural competence in health care delivery and desirability of gender concordance (patient-practitioner) in health care .

There is also a significant focus on the hospital as a social or total institution , a small society or a home of the vulnerable population. This aspect also attempts to explain the competing interests for managing the patients in the hospital environment, and consider how these interests or influences manifest, and are resolved in the delivery of care. The experiences of patients and quality of service delivery (especially patients’ satisfaction with care) are also part of the focus. This aspect also attempts to examine perceptions of and social relations within health care institutions—the patient-practitioner, practitioner-practitioner relationships, work-related difficulties and adjustments, and the role of health professionals in society.

Sociologists also tend to unravel the bureaucratic structures in medical care or hospitals and how such structures influence health care delivery systems. What is the impact of red tapism on service delivery? How do standardisation or organisation hierarchies pattern the service delivery system? How are the health professionals responding to the changing bureaucracy in the medical setting? How are or can health workers be motivated to achieve the goals of health organisation or policies? All of these questions constitute parts of the research focus of medical sociologists.

In addition, power relations within the hospital management are also part of sociological research. There are resultant power scuffles that often affect health care delivery systems. The constituent units in the hospital (medical doctors [including various specialists], pharmacists, nurses, administrative staff [e.g., accountants and personnel officers], laboratory professionals, and other cadre employees [down to the lowest cadre such as cleaners]) have sometimes been in conflict as a result of power relations in work contacts. Conflict often arises as a result of interrelated and interdependent tasks and, in some cases, unclear definition and demarcation of tasks, especially among related professionals (e.g., physicians and physiotherapists in the management of a fracture). These power relations have been a core part of medical sociological research.

Sociology of Psychiatry or Social Psychiatry

Psychiatry is a medical subdiscipline that works most closely with the social sciences , especially sociology. The thrust of social psychiatry is on the social and cultural context of mental health and illness. Social psychiatry is concerned with the cultural and social factors that engender, precipitate, intensify, or prolong maladaptive behaviour and complicate the management of mental disorders. It is also defined as a field of psychiatry based on the study of sociocultural and ecologic influences on the development and course/trajectory of mental diseases . Because of evidence-based social aspects of mental health, social psychiatry is perhaps the most visible aspect of mental health management. It also leads to the emergence of subprofessionals in psychiatry, known as social psychiatrists. Mental health has much to do with lifestyles and social conditions. In fact, most manifestations of mental disorders depict the contravention of normal standards of behaviour in the society. This implies that in most cases, a mental disorder is recognised through excessive abnormal behaviour within the social system . Hence, there was a shift in psychiatric ideology to the patient’s behaviour and social relationships (Pilgrim and Rogers 1994 ) .

Community psychiatry approach has been a major management approach in psychiatric treatment. This approach takes cognisant of the socio-spatial environment and the roles of significant others in the rehabilitation and re-integration of those with mental disorders. Positive support from such links will facilitate the rehabilitation and re-integration of the patients. Medical sociologists have been actively involved in the management of the patients and implementation of research necessary to improve patient management styles. There is also a growing body of research on the handling of patients in psychiatric hospitals, focusing on the use of physical and medical restraints and violence .

Social stigmatisation of the mentally ill is also part of the research focus in medical sociology (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8#Sec5 on labelling and mental illness). Stigmatisation prevents proper re-integration of the patients and may lead to relapse of the mental health condition following a worsening social condition of the patients. This is why medical sociologists often prioritise how to reduce social stigmatisation among all categories of patients. Most importantly, the works of Erving Goffman ( 1961 , 1963 ) on total institution (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8#Sec11) and stigma (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_8#Sec6 ) have been the major guiding theoretical underpinnings in social psychiatry and social reaction to illness/diseases. More often, community psychiatry depicts the de-institutionisation approach advocated by the Goffmanians in order to minimise alienating experiences and estrangement of the patients. The aforementioned issues constitute some of the areas of involvement of medical sociology in psychiatry.

Social Transition and Heath Care

There are dual aspects of social transition as it relates to health care—a change in both the society and health care itself. Change in the society might inform change in health care and there could also be meaningful development in health care as a result of improved technology. Medical sociologists are interested in both. They are riveted in social dynamics and responses of various facets of social organisation. Social change is constant; hence, human society is constantly undergoing numerous forms of social transition. The health care institutions have continuously been responding to changes in all sectors of the society. As a result of changes in the economic systems, for instance, some societies practise a capitalist health system , while others adopt a socialised health care system with embedded variations in how the systems are implemented. Medical sociologists are interested in how social transitions, whether political or economic, affect health care systems. They are interested in the course, causes, and consequences of such social transitions in the health care sector.

Apart from the institutional focus regarding social change, medical sociologists also study how such changes affect health and illness behaviour of the individuals. Both the individual and the institution often respond to change. In this regard, it is important to document what social change means for the health of the community. Social change may also affect vulnerability to different forms of diseases. Modern inventions create possibilities in health care systems and also raise copious sociocultural apprehensions. The advancement in information and communication technology makes telemedicine possible and improves diagnosis and treatment of patients. The Human Genome Project (HGP) continues to create more possibilities in health care systems. We are now living in a world with assisted reproductive technology , stem cell research , and nanotechnology. Many individuals now desire to enhance their bodies instead of treating disabilities. The possibility of transplantation leads to a proliferation of organ markets. These are some typical examples of issues generating new research directions in the sociological study of health and change.

Traditional Medicine/Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Ethno-medicine , or traditional medicine (TM) , has been one of the major focal points of sociological research (see Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_10#Sec2 for further elaboration) . The utilisation of TM in the prevention and treatment of diseases has been intensively researched by sociologists in an attempt to understand the sociocultural context associated with the continuous patronage of TM. What informs the choice of TM? How prevalent is the use of TM? Are patients getting results from TM? What is the cultural basis of the belief in TM? Are there diseases that are only amenable to TM? How does TM differ from the biomedical norm in the definition of disease, perception of symptoms, and treatment? How can TM be recognised and incorporated into the general health care system? How is TM itself organised as a health care alternative? What is the place of TM in health care policy? Is TM complementary or alternative to modern medicine? What are the limitations of TM in health care? These are some of the questions that sociologists want to answer.

In some countries, there is constant tension between traditional and modern medicine, especially as an alternative health care system. Unfortunately, most of the practices of TM are not amenable to science and are grossly less advanced than modern medicine. But the incessant reliance in some communities on TM informs its recognition as part of health care institutions. Such recognition is also necessary as most of such societies have limited access to modern health care . In addition, TM seems to be the closest health care system to underserved communities. More importantly, there is an argument that it conforms to the belief system of the community. It is because of these aforementioned reasons that sociologists are concerned about the developments in TM .

Sociology of Bioethics

There is now sociology’s engagement with bioethics, a field of growing interest that is defined by its concern with moral questions in biomedicine (De Vries 2003 ; Petersen 2011 ) , whether it is called sociology in bioethics or sociology of bioethics (see Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_11 for further elaboration) . The field of medical ethics or bioethics in general is multidisciplinary because the ethical dilemma in health care requires the inputs and understanding of various professionals. Some of these moral perplexities are part of societal concerns for equity, equality, and justice in health care. A majority of these issues are sociocultural issues and general ethical or moral standards of behaviour in the society. This is why sociological insights are necessary if the ethical conundrums presented by medicine are to be successfully resolved in practice. The most vital tool in medicine is the “human body.” The body is a place where medical practices and interventions are exercised. The human and his/her body have a significant place in sociological impetus. Sociologists collaborate in resolving moral challenges in health care practice and research. Humphreys ( 2008 , p. 51) observed that the sociological approach has brought out some interesting perspectives, especially unintended consequences of behaviours that bioethics (and research ethics) may not have anticipated.

While the field of sociology of biomedical ethics is still emerging, especially in SSA, a number of medical sociologists hold interest in it. In developed countries, there is a growing relevance of bioethicists in health care regulations and practices. Sociologists generally want to understand how ethical challenges can be resolved within the limits of societal conscience and how moral values and ethical behaviours are embodied and lived by social agents. How do ethical resolutions conform to the cultural milieu of the society? How are resolutions in the best interest of the individual? What are the future implications of ethical resolutions? How do medical practices incline with the norms and values of the society? How can we structure the development of new technology and its application within the moral values of the society? Sociologists have often challenged bioethics to look beyond principlism (Petersen 2011 ) . Humphreys ( 2008 ) noted that sociology of bioethics has concentrated on social processes within bioethical debate, on role relationships, and on the norms, values, and beliefs of those engaged in the bioethical endeavour. Invariably, sociology now has keen interest in the relevance of social processes in the understanding of moral uneasiness posed by some advancement in biomedical sciences such as biobanks, stem cell research , biotechnology, nanotechnologies, genetic testing , clinical trials , transplantation , and medical enhancement .

Heath Policy and Politics

One major factor that greatly influences the health of the society, beyond the handling of a stethoscope or syringe in the hospital, is health policy and politics . Health politics is about who gets what health resources, why and when. Such politics involves the creation of medical schools; construction of health facilities; recruitment and deployment of health personnel; determination of health workers’ benefits and their motivation, procurement, and provision of equipment; appointment of health care administrators; and initiation, formulation, and implementation of national, regional, or community health care policies. These issues are really crucial and are usually not under the control of the physicians, but rather the politicians or political leaders. This further signifies that a number of fundamental issues are beyond the confines of the hospital walls that must be properly considered in order to improve the health of the people.

Medical sociologists in particular are interested in the community or societal processes in the formulation of health policy . Most sociological questions include, among others: What are the social consequences of health care policy on the health of the community? Which policy is working, which is not, and why? How does health policy affect access to health care? What are the attitudes towards health policy? Who benefits from a particular policy and why? How can policies be modified to get better results? How are health facilities distributed and why? How adequate are health personnel and are they properly motivated to deliver national health policies? What is the influence of political will or political agenda on health care prioritisation? All of these questions are often treated using sociological perspectives and methods.

The intricacies involved in health care politics are often overwhelming and often require unparalleled attention if population health must be improved. In most SSA countries, there is paltry health political will, which accounts for poor health care facilities and, hence, high prevalence of health problems. There is often an insufficient budget and diminutive political will to implement the best practices, which explain the high rate of mortality from preventable diseases each year. The meagre foreign aid is mismanaged and good health policies often turn ineffective. There are critical issues for health policy and politics, which, if addressed, could improve population health in many countries. This is why medical sociologists consider health politics a part of the crux of the discipline .

Social Epidemiology

This is the study of the sociocultural factors in the distribution, incidence, and prevalence of health problems in human society. Jegede ( 1996 ) defined social epidemiology as the study of the disease process; its occurrence in population groups; those social and cultural factors that affect their incidence, prevalence, and distribution; and the host response in disease prevention and control in human population. Social epidemiology often focuses on what Krieger ( 1994 , 2001) described as the multifactorial aetiology or web of causation—an array of social determinants of health distribution, an interplay of host, agent, and environment. There are numerous interconnected risk factors in the social system , which exposes individuals to the agents of diseases. These multifactorial links constitute the focus of social epidemiologists. It is through the understanding of the multicausality of disease that the differential distribution of diseases can be explained. One fundamental principle in social epidemiology is that humans are embodied agents (both socially and biologically). The interplay of these embodiments plays significant roles in risk exposure and susceptibility. Social epidemiology is a marriage of sociological frameworks to epidemiological studies (Krieger 2001 ) , which represent a holistic approach.

Sociology of Dying and Death

Medical sociologists are also interested in patterns of mortality in human society. The major focus is on the social factors responsible for differential mortality rates in different social groups and societies in general. Issues such as income, gender , race, education, marital status, and occupation are associated with death rates. Sociologists study the interplay of these factors with risk exposures. Life expectancy in various nations is also unconnected with social conditions. There is strong relevance of sociological frameworks in the analysis of death in human society.

Apart from this, death is also a biosocial issue. It is biological because of the failure of biological organ(s) in the body, which often signifies death. Certification of death is thus a biomedical necessity. Social death could, however, occur before (biological) death. The inability to be a functioning member of the society due to total social incapacitation, and signals the expectation of (biological) death. Apart from this, death itself is a form of social transition; a new form of being that creates a vacuum, which often signifies emptiness of social roles. This implies that death has significant social repercussions for the affected individuals and the society at large. Hence, society often prepares to cater for the social blankness created by death. Bryant ( 2002 ) observed that society shapes social structure to constrain and contain the disruptive effects of death.

Furthermore, one of the primary interests is on the causes of death in human society—especially those causes that have links with sociocultural issues. Such causes are usually studied sociologically and historically. This will expose the social patterns of death: which group dies more from what ailment and why. What are the sociological explanations of the exposure of the group to a particular ailment in the society? More so, sociologists are also interested in passage rite for the dead. Different societies respond and receive death in various ways. Other issues of interest include notions of good and bad death , death and social institution, social responses to death, political economy of death, death and religion , death after life, life after death, and increasing versus decreasing life expectancy across the globe.

Medical Education

The bedrock of sociology of medical education is the prioritisation of health and social origin of medical education, which has profound implications for knowledge orientation and dissemination, organisational arrangements, and access to such education . It focuses on current issues affecting medical students, the profession, faculty members, and the impact of medical education on the society at large. Light ( 1988 , p. 307) also observed that “the changing locus of medical education in the matrix of social, cultural, political, and organizational forces exhibited by the health care system calls for the attention of medical sociologists.” A number of research priorities in sociology of medical education include: how social changes affect delivery and content of medical education; access to medical education among various social groups; orientation of medical education; outcomes of medical education; and health policy and medical education. Mechanic ( 1990 ) averred that focus of this area also includes how to improve medical curricula, cultural competence in medical education, and ethical behaviour of medical professionals as well as the study of the pattern and context of professional socialisation .

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The evolution of social health research topics: A data-driven analysis

Affiliations.

1 Institution of Socialomics, Yonsei University, South Korea. Electronic address: [email protected].
2 Department of Sociology, Yonsei University, South Korea. Electronic address: [email protected].
3 Department of Library and Information Science, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea. Electronic address: [email protected].
PMID: 32905964
DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113299

The realm of social health has not yet been properly established in terms of fixed definitions, concepts, and research areas. This study attempts to define social health using macro and micro perspectives and explores trends in social health research by mapping their topics and fields. We used Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic modeling, which allows the extraction of key terms and topics derived from a large volume of literature. We traced the evolution of research topics from past (the literature that "present" articles cited), present (existing journal articles on social health), to future (the literature which cited the articles) studies based on connections between citations. The datasets were collected by the query terms "social health" in the Scopus database, including title, abstract, and keywords of journal articles. We collected a total of 443 articles from recent social health literature, 6588 articles from past literature that the recent articles on social health cited, and 2680 articles from future literature in which recent social health articles were cited. We defined social health as positive interaction that increases individual engagement in social life at the micro level, and the high degree of social integration that deals with collective problems in society at the macro level. The results of LDA showed that social health research has developed into seven fields: Health Care Delivery; Vulnerable Groups; Measurement; Health Inequality; Social Network and Empowerment; Clinical/Physical Health; and Mental/Behavioral Health. Based on citation relationships, topics grounded in an individual/micro perspective have grown increasingly specialized and productive, while topics grounded in a social/macro perspective have stagnated or was underexplored. Our findings imply that social health studies should follow a more interdisciplinary approach to integrate current health models of individual-centered treatments with social science concerns on building collective capacity for social well-being.

Keywords: Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA); Research trends; Scopus; Social health; Social health knowledge mapping; Social health knowledge summarization; Social health research area; Text mining.

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Sociology of Health

Ubc’s sociology of health research stream focuses on social factors associated with health and wellbeing. it conceives of physical and mental health as an attribute of societies, communities, smaller groups like families, and individuals. it addresses issues such as the social determinants of health, the intersection of health and environment, health over the life course, public health and public policy, power and health, and the ways in which organizations shape health..

Read the works of our researchers:

Seth Abrutyn

Abrutyn, Seth and Anna S. Mueller. 2014. " Are Suicidal Behaviors Contagious? Using Longitudinal Data to Examine Suicide Suggestion. " American Sociological Review 79(2):211-27.
Mueller, Anna S. and Seth Abrutyn. 2016. " Adolescents under Pressure: A New Durkheimian Framework for Understanding Adolescent Suicide in a Cohesive Community. " American Sociological Review 81(5):877-99.
Abrutyn, Seth, Anna S. Mueller and Melissa Osborne. 2019. " Rekeying Cultural Scripts for Youth Suicide: How Social Networks Facilitate Suicide Diffusion and Suicide Clusters Following Exposure to Suicide. " Society and Mental Health 10(2):112-35

Kimberly Huyser

Yellow Horse, Aggie J, Francesco Acciai, and Kimberly R Huyser. 2022. “ Investigating the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives–Relevant Causes of Death as the Major Source of the Life Expectancy Gap for the American Indian and Alaska Native Population. " 2010–2019.” Epidemiology.
Huyser, Kimberly R.*, and Sofia Locklear*. 2021. “ Reversing Statistical Erasure of Indigenous Peoples: The Social Construction of American Indians and Alaska Natives in the US using National Datasets .” Chapter in Walter, M., Kukutai, T., Gonzales, A.A., & Henry, R. (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Indigenous Sociology. Oxford University Press: New York.
Huyser, Kimberly R., Aggie J. Yellow Horse, Alena A. Kuhlemeier, and Michelle R. Huyser. 2021. “ COVID-19 Pandemic and Indigenous Representation in Public Health Data. ” American Journal of Public Health. 111(S3):S208-S214.

Phyllis Johnson

Johnson, P. J. (2010). The Roles of NASA, U.S. Astronauts and Their Families in Long-Duration Missions . Acta Astronautica, 67, 561-571.
Stoll, K. & Johnson, P. J. (2007). Determinants of the psychosocial adjustment of Southern Sudanese Men. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20 (4), 621-640.
Johnson, P. (1996.) Coping with stress through microcosms of home and family among arctic whalers. The History of the Family 1(1): 41-62.

Anne Martin-Matthews

Torrejón, María-José & Martin-Matthews, Anne (2022). “ A qualitative approach to bridging and bonding social capital: Experiences of a cohort of Chilean older people ”, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 296, March, 114710.
Aaltonen, M., Martin-Matthews, A., Puïkki, J., Eskola, P., Jolanki, O (2021)., " Experiences of people with memory disorders and their spouse carers on influencing formal care: ‘They ask my wife questions that they should ask me’ .”Dementia: The International Journal of Social Research and Practice.
Martin-Matthews, Anne, Tong, Catherine, Rosenthal, Carolyn J. & McDonald, P. Lynn (2013), “ Ethnocultural diversity in the experience of widowhood in later life: Chinese widows in Canada.” Journal of Aging Studies, 27(4): 507-518.

Ethan Raker

Douds, Kiara Wyndham and Ethan J. Raker. 2021. “ The Geography of Ethnoracial Birth Weight Inequalities in the United States. ” SSM – Population Health 15.
Raker, Ethan J., Meghan Zacher, & Sarah R. Lowe. 2020. “ Lessons from Hurricane Katrina for predicting the indirect health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(23) 12595-12597.
Raker, Ethan J., Sarah Lowe, Mariana Arcaya, Sydney Johnson, Jean Rhodes, & Mary C. Waters. 2019. “ Twelve years later: the long-term mental health consequences of Hurricane Katrina. ” Social Science & Medicine 242: 1-10.

Lindsey Richardson

Richardson, L., Long, C., DeBeck, K., Nguyen, P., Milloy, M-J., Wood, E., Kerr, T. (2015) Socioeconomic marginalisation in the structural production of vulnerability to violence among people who use illicit drugs . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 69(7), 686-692.
Richardson, L., Laing, A., Choi, J., Nosova, K., Milloy, M-J., Marshall, B., Singer, J., Wood, E., Kerr, T. (2021) Effect of alternative income assistance schedules on drug use and drug-related harm: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Public Health. 6: e324-34.
Jaffe, K., Korthuis, P.T., Richardson, L. (2021) Experimental (re)structuring: Shifting place, time, and social ties among medical research participants. Qualitative Health Research. 31(8): 1504-1517.

Guy Stecklov

Barbara Okun, and Guy Stecklov. 2021. “ The Impact of Grandparental Death on the Fertility of Adult Children ,” Demography. 58(3), 847-870.
Ashira Menashe-Oron and Guy Stecklov. 2018. “ Urban-Rural Disparities in Adult Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa ,” Population and Development Review 44(1), 7-35
Alex Weinreb and Guy Stecklov. 2009. " Social inequality and HIV-testing: Comparing home- and clinic-based testing in rural Malawi ," Demographic Research, 21(21), pages 627-646.

Gerry Veenstra

Veenstra, Gerry & Adam Vanzella-Yang. 2021. Intergenerational social mobility and self-rated health in Canada . SSM – Population Health 15, 100890 (pp. 1-6).
Burnett, Patrick John & Gerry Veenstra. 2017. Margins of freedom: A field-theoretic approach to class-based health practices. Sociology of Health & Illness 39, 7, 1050-1067.
Veenstra, Gerry & Patrick John Burnett. 2014. A relational approach to health practices: Towards transcending the agency-structure divide. Sociology of Health & Illness 36, 2, 187-198.
Fu, Qiang, Tian-yi Zhou, Xin Guo. 2021. “ Modified Poisson Regression Analysis of Grouped and Right-censored Counts. ” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A 184(4): 1347-1367.
Gu, Jiaxin, Xin Guo, Gerry Veenstra, Yushu Zhu, and Qiang Fu. 2021. “ Adolescent Marijuana Use in the United States and Structural Breaks: An Age-Period-Cohort Analysis, 1991 to 2018. ” American Journal of Epidemiology 190(6): 1056-1063 .
Fu, Qiang. 2018. “ Bringing Urban Governance Back In: Neighborhood Conflicts and Depression. ” Social Science & Medicine 196: 1-9.

Graduate Classes

We offer the following courses in the Sociology of Health:

SOCI 479 Social Determinants of Health
SOCI 473: Sociology of Mental Illness
SOCI 584A: Health, Illness & Society
SOCI 508: Advanced Methods Seminar
SOCI 290: Global Pandemics
SOCI 344: Sociology of Aging
SOCI 387: Drugs and Society
SOCI 384: Sociology of Health and Illness
SOCI 495F Sociology and Health
SOCI 495x: Sociology of Indigenous Health
SOCI 495x: The Demography of Disasters
SOCI 599E 201: Aging and Society

Sociology of Health Research News

Prof. lindsey richardson and phd student alyy patel receive 2024 awards from the canadian sociological association, “the problem is very complex” — prof. lindsey richardson on the context behind bc’s drug decriminalization policy, prof. seth abrutyn speaks to vox about the research behind new book life under pressure, about this research area:.

Health sociology in the department involves the examination of health and illness at the intersections of social structures and institutions, governments and policies, healthcare systems and personal experiences.

This area involves investigation of the influence of social, political and economic inequalities on the differential distribution of health and illness within populations and among groups of individuals.

In particular, scholars in the department conduct research on the health effects of socioeconomic status and social class, race and ethnicity, housing, social capital, income generation practices, and neighbourhood of residence.

Experiences of health and illness

This prominent area of health sociology, with roots in phenomenology and symbolic interactionism, focuses on exploring meanings associated with experiences of health, illness, illness-related stigma, and care-seeking for individuals and their families and on patterns of communication between clients of health services and service providers.

Forms and activities of healthcare institutions

The field of health sociology also includes examination of the organization of healthcare institutions and their role in shaping the delivery of health services.

This area includes a long tradition of research focused on how medical students are socialized into the medical profession well as examinations of the culture of hospitals and nursing homes and implications for the quality of care provided.

Current research involves investigation of the effects of privatization and outsourcing of hospital support services and issues pertaining to the recruitment, retention, training and work dynamics of home support workers.

Health and social policy

Work in this area seeks to identify the implications of health and social policies for the nature of healthcare systems and the health and well-being of populations.

Current research investigates how the construction and use of measurement instruments influences policy decisions and understandings about health, and the health impacts of different social policies.

Sociology of Health Resources

UBC Health and Society

Social worlds research group, ciedar research group, risk research group.

Top 91 Medical Sociology Research Topics

Medical sociology research topics are not as popular on the internet as other sociology research topics. This can be a bit discouraging for students who have medical sociology topics research papers to turn in. Coming up with original topics can be difficult on its own. It becomes worse when you do not have inspiration from academic sites on the Internet.

To solve this problem, a list of 91 medical sociology topics has been compiled in this article for you. All you need to do is pick your preferred topic and write!

Get help here

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Medical Sociology Research Topics

Discuss Preferential Treatment Given to Patients of Higher Social Classes
Discuss How to Raise Awareness of Medical Health in Rural Societies
Discuss Sexual Harassment of Doctors on Patients
Discuss the Perception of Women Doctors
Discuss Society’s Attitude to Mental Health
Discuss the Challenges of Healthcare in Rural Societies
Discuss the Challenges of HealthCare in Urban Societies
Discuss Medical Negligence in the United States
Discuss News Ways to Treat Mental Health
Discuss Maternal Mortality Rate in Africa
Discuss Society’s Attitude to Vaccines
Discuss the World’s Attitude to the COVID-19 Vaccines
Discuss the Inequalities in Healthcare
Discuss the Attitude of Young People Towards Mental Health
Discuss Patients’ Distrust of Doctors
Discuss the Role of a Social Health Worker
Discuss New Ways to Curb the Spread of Sexually Transmitted Infections
Discuss Noise Pollution on Mental Health
Discuss Air Pollution on Public Health
Safe Ways to Purify Bad Water
Discuss the Impacts of COVID-19 on Disabled People
Discuss Postpartum Depression
Discuss the Clashes of Interest Between Medicine and Religion
Discuss the Agreement Between Medicine and Religion
Discuss the Benefits of Social Medicine to the Society
Discuss the Social Determinants of Mental Health
Discuss How People Diagnosed with Chronic Diseases Can Manage Them
Discuss Euthanasia and Ethics
Discuss How to Improve Care for the Elderly
Discuss a Healthcare System You Will Use for Your Society
Discuss How to Improve Care for Sick Babies
Discuss Common Human Practices that Contribute to Poor Health
Discuss Ways to Practice Healthy Living
How to Manage Attention Deficit Disorder in Children?
New Ways to Reduce Teenage Pregnancy
Is Abortion the Answer to Curbing the High Rate of Teenage Pregnancy?
New Ways to Cope with Stress
Why We Should All Have Health Insurance
How Exercises Can Aid in Poor Health
The Society’s Perception of Immunization
An Assessment of the Attitude Towards Oral Hygiene in Your Community
What are the Illnesses that Can Arise from a Lack of Physical Exercises?
Soda and Diabetes: A Public Concern
Urbanization and the Emergence of Respiratory Diseases
Alcohol Abuse: A Concern for Public Health
Healthy Diet that Can Help Reduce Diabetes
The Different Types of Cancers
How the Internet Affects Mental Health
How News Contribute to Mental Health
Why Prisoners Should Get Better Healthcare
The Attitude of Asylum Workers Towards Mentally-Ill Patients
How Accessible is National Healthcare?
Discuss the Benefits of Early Detection of Heart Diseases
Discuss Access to Public Healthcare in Rural Communities
Discuss the Causes of Depression in Today’s Society
Do a Comparative Study on Bulimia and Anorexia
Discuss Heart Diseases
Discuss Diseases Associated with Old Age
Discuss the Causes of Rapid Aging
Discuss How to Reduce Air Pollution
Discuss the Psychological Effects of Artificial Insemination
Discuss the Psychological Effects of Surrogacy
Do a Comparative Study on Surrogacy and Artificial Insemination
Discuss New Ways to Reduce Obesity
Discuss the Psychological Effects of Organ Donation
Discuss the Benefits of Early Detection of Cancer
Discuss Unethical Practices in Medical Sociology
Discuss New Ways to Protect Human Subjects
Discuss the Need for the Government’s Financial Support of Medical Sociology Research
Discuss How Environmental Pollution Contributes to Asthma
Discuss Rare Diseases in Humans
Discuss New Ways to Manage Sleep Problems
Discuss the Contribution of Poor Oral. Health to Diabetes
Organic Skincare and Cancer
Makeup Products and Skin Cancer
Cosmetics and Skin Aging
Discuss the Effects of Contraception
How to Move Forward After Your License Has Been Seized
Racism and Ethnic Disparity Among Medical Sociologists
Discuss the Attitude of Rural People to Child Healthcare
Should Medical Research be Conducted on Animals?
New Ways to Manage Eating Disorders
Discuss the Effects of Urbanization on Public Health
How Ethical is Assisted Suicide?
What are the Dangers of a Vegan Diet?
Discuss the Effects of Uncircumcision
Discuss the Effects of Circumcision
Should Marijuana be Legalized?
Discuss Common Illnesses and Diseases in Today’s Society
New Ways to Reduce the Spread of Tuberculosis
Distinguish Between Epidemic and Pandemics

With these topics, medical sociology topics research papers just got started. As stated earlier, just pick one and write!

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Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

Research topics and ideas about sociology

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
The role of community engagement in local governance.
Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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Sociology of Health and Illness

There is increasing recognition (including within the field of medicine) that health and illness are a function of social factors (e.g., inequality). For example, the MCAT now includes questions about health inequalities. Students who specialize in this area will be expected to understand this idea and the research that demonstrates that social inequalities matter for health. They will also be expected to be familiar with other socially oriented approaches to understanding health outcomes like depression, morbidity, and mortality. This often involves understanding not just a range of theories concerning why different individuals have different health outcomes, but also a range of methods (both clinical and otherwise) for understanding health outcomes.

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30+ Sociology Research Topics on Mental Health: Your Ultimate Guide

Want to know sociology research topics on mental health?

Mental health is a critical aspect of overall well-being, deeply interconnected with various social factors.

Sociology, the study of society and human behavior, offers unique insights into how mental health is influenced by social structures, relationships, and cultural norms.

Understanding mental health from a sociological perspective helps to uncover the complex interplay between individuals and society.

This article explores the importance of studying mental health in sociology , the intersection between the two fields, and various best sociology research topics on mental health interested in this area.

What is Mental Health in Sociology?

Table of Contents

In sociology, mental health is examined not just as an individual experience but as a phenomenon influenced by broader social forces.

Sociologists investigate how factors like socioeconomic status, family dynamics, peer groups, cultural norms, and social institutions impact mental health.

This holistic approach helps to identify patterns and causes of mental health issues that are often overlooked when focusing solely on the individual.

Importance of Studying Mental Health in Sociology

Studying mental health within the field of sociology is crucial for several reasons. First, it helps to highlight the social determinants of mental health, emphasizing the role of environmental and societal factors in mental well-being.

Second, it aids in the development of more effective interventions and policies by addressing the root social causes of mental health issues.

Finally, it promotes a more comprehensive understanding of mental health that includes not just biological or psychological aspects but also social influences.

The Intersection of Sociology and Mental Health

The intersection of sociology and mental health involves exploring how social structures, cultural norms, and community environments affect mental health. Sociologists study the ways in which mental health is shaped by social interactions, institutions, and policies. This interdisciplinary approach provides a broader context for understanding mental health issues and developing strategies to address them.

How Sociology Explains Mental Health

The role of society in shaping mental health.

Society plays a significant role in shaping mental health through various mechanisms. Social norms, cultural values, and institutional practices can either support or hinder mental well-being. For instance, societies that stigmatize mental illness may discourage individuals from seeking help, while those that promote mental health awareness and support systems can improve outcomes.

Impact of Social Factors on Mental Health

Social factors such as income, education, and social support are crucial determinants of mental health. These factors influence access to resources, stress levels, and overall life satisfaction, all of which have direct implications for mental well-being.

Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health

The influence of family dynamics on mental health.

Family dynamics, including relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family members, significantly impact mental health. Supportive family environments can foster resilience and well-being, while dysfunctional family relationships can contribute to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.

How Peer Pressure Affects Mental Health

Peer pressure, especially during adolescence, can have profound effects on mental health. Positive peer influences can encourage healthy behaviors and self-esteem, while negative peer pressure can lead to risky behaviors and mental health problems.

Cultural Influences on Mental Health

Cultural beliefs and practices shape attitudes toward mental health and influence how individuals experience and cope with mental health issues. Cultural norms can either facilitate or hinder the expression and treatment of mental health conditions.

Mental Health in Different Demographics

Mental health among adolescents.

Adolescents face unique mental health challenges due to the rapid physical, emotional, and social changes they experience. Issues such as peer pressure, academic stress, and identity formation can significantly impact their mental well-being.

Mental Health in the Elderly

The elderly population often faces mental health issues related to aging, such as loneliness, loss of independence, and chronic health conditions. Understanding these challenges from a sociological perspective can help develop better support systems for this demographic.

Gender Differences in Mental Health

Gender plays a crucial role in mental health, with different mental health issues and coping mechanisms observed among men and women. Sociological research helps to identify and address these differences, promoting more effective gender-sensitive interventions.

Mental Health in Marginalized Communities

Marginalized communities often experience higher rates of mental health issues due to factors such as discrimination, poverty, and lack of access to healthcare. Sociological research highlights these disparities and advocates for more equitable mental health care.

Mental Health and Social Institutions

The role of education in mental health.

Educational institutions have a significant impact on mental health, influencing stress levels, self-esteem, and social relationships. Schools and universities can play a critical role in promoting mental health awareness and providing support services.

Workplace Stress and Mental Health

The workplace is a key social institution that affects mental health. Job-related stress, work-life balance, and organizational culture are important factors influencing mental well-being. Sociological research helps to identify and address workplace-related mental health issues.

The Impact of Healthcare Systems on Mental Health

Healthcare systems play a crucial role in mental health by providing access to services and support. Sociological studies examine how different healthcare models and policies affect mental health outcomes and advocate for improvements in mental health care delivery.

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

Social media and adolescent mental health.

Social media has become an integral part of adolescents’ lives, with both positive and negative impacts on mental health. While social media can provide support and community, it can also lead to issues such as cyberbullying and social comparison.

The Influence of Online Communities on Mental Health

Online communities can offer support and a sense of belonging, especially for individuals with mental health issues. However, they can also reinforce negative behaviors and attitudes, necessitating careful management and moderation.

Cyberbullying and Its Impact on Mental Health

Cyberbullying is a growing concern with significant mental health implications. Victims of cyberbullying often experience anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem, highlighting the need for effective prevention and intervention strategies.

Mental Health Policies and Society

Government policies on mental health.

Government policies play a crucial role in shaping mental health services and support. Policies that promote mental health awareness, funding for services, and anti-discrimination measures are essential for improving mental health outcomes.

The Role of Non-Profits in Mental Health Advocacy

Non-profit organizations are vital in advocating for mental health awareness, providing services, and supporting research. These organizations often fill gaps left by government and private sector services.

Mental Health Legislation and Its Social Implications

Mental health legislation has significant social implications, affecting the rights and treatment of individuals with mental health issues. Sociological research helps to evaluate the effectiveness of these laws and advocate for necessary reforms.

Research Methods in Sociology of Mental Health

Qualitative methods in mental health research.

Qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus groups, provide in-depth insights into individuals’ experiences with mental health. These methods help to understand the subjective aspects of mental health and the social contexts that influence it.

Quantitative Methods in Mental Health Research

Quantitative methods, including surveys and statistical analysis, help to identify patterns and correlations between social factors and mental health outcomes. These methods provide a broader perspective on the prevalence and distribution of mental health issues.

Ethical Considerations in Mental Health Research

Ethical considerations are paramount in mental health research, ensuring that studies are conducted responsibly and that participants’ rights and well-being are protected. Sociological research must adhere to ethical guidelines to maintain trust and integrity.

Emerging Trends in Mental Health Sociology

The future of mental health in sociology.

The future of mental health sociology lies in integrating interdisciplinary approaches, leveraging new technologies, and addressing emerging social challenges. Sociologists will continue to play a crucial role in understanding and improving mental health outcomes.

Innovative Approaches to Mental Health Care

Innovative approaches, such as digital mental health interventions, community-based programs, and integrative care models, are transforming mental health care. Sociological research helps to evaluate and promote these new strategies.

30+ Compelling Sociology Research Topics on Mental Health

Socioeconomic Inequality and Mental Health
The Effect of Social Support on Mental Health Recovery
The Relationship Between Mental Health and Crime
The Impact of Urbanization on Mental Health
Mental Health Stigma in Different Cultures
The Role of Religion in Mental Health
Mental Health and Substance Abuse
The Influence of Parental Mental Health on Children
The Effects of Unemployment on Mental Health
Mental Health in the LGBTQ+ Community
The Role of Community Programs in Mental Health
Mental Health in Rural vs. Urban Areas
The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health
Social Isolation and Mental Health
The Relationship Between Mental Health and Physical Health
The Influence of Media Representation on Mental Health
Mental Health Interventions in Schools
The Effect of War and Conflict on Mental Health
Mental Health and Immigration
The Role of Genetics vs. Environment in Mental Health
Mental Health and Aging
The Impact of Technology on Mental Health
Workplace Mental Health Programs
The Role of Counseling in Mental Health
Mental Health Awareness Campaigns
The Influence of Diet and Exercise on Mental Health
The Role of Sleep in Mental Health
Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Comparative Studies of Mental Health Systems in Different Countries
The Impact of Arts and Creativity on Mental Health

Understanding mental health from a sociological perspective is essential for addressing the complex social factors that influence mental well-being.

By exploring the intersection of sociology and mental health, students and researchers can develop more effective interventions, policies, and support systems.

Encouraging students to delve into this field can lead to significant contributions to mental health research and practice, ultimately improving the quality of life for individuals and communities.

Top 30+ Mini Project Ideas For Computer Engineering Students

Mini projects are really important for computer engineering students. They help students learn by doing practical stuff alongside their regular…

126 Good Informative Speech Topics – 2024

June 23, 2024

What is an informative speech? You may be asking this question if you find yourself needing to give one for a class or extracurricular. Unlike a persuasive speech , which is designed to convince an audience of something, or a debate , which can be polemic by nature, an informative speech is meant to educate its listeners on a topic, elucidate an unclear idea, or simply help an audience delve more deeply into a subject. In other words, while informative speeches can persuade or argue, they don’t have to. In this article, we’ll highlight a few tips on how to choose good informative speech topics, and then provide a list of 126 informative speech ideas to get you brainstorming for your next big speech!

How to Choose Informative Speech Topics

Your choice of informative speech topic will depend greatly upon the task at hand: is this speech for a class? A passion project ? A campus rally? A professional development conference? Recruiting for a particular major, club, or community service organization? A high school speech competition? Once you know the purpose and parameters of your speech, it will be easier to select an informative speech topic that is an appropriate subject and size. Additionally, it’s important to consider your audience, expertise, scope, research, and tone before you delve into your writing.

Knowing your target audience is key to creating reciprocity, or the necessary give and take between speaker and listener that creates communication and understanding. Speakers who know their audiences are better able to shape their speeches to be well-received. [i] Imagine, for example, you’re giving an informative speech on “Jane Austen’s narrators.” You must ask yourself: are you giving your speech to a panel of scholars, to educated adult non-experts, or to grade school-aged children? If your audience will be comprised of literature professors, your speech should provide fairly advanced and in-depth knowledge and should be filled with the latest developments in professional literary criticism. If your audience is made up of grade school-aged children, you’ll want to start with the basics, like who was Jane Austen? And what, exactly, is a narrator?

As you give your informative speech, you’ll want to think about not only your audience’s level of expertise in your speech topic, but also your own (and it’s okay if you’re a novice in the subject!). [ii] An informative speech often includes or takes into consideration a synthesis of preexisting scholarship in a field or information around a topic. While you don’t need to apprise your audience of an entire body of research before you begin delivering your speech, you do want to have a working knowledge of the preexisting conversation around your informative speech topic. [iii] This will inform the level of research you’ll need to perform before you begin writing your speech.

In terms of selecting research sources, it’s good to remember the three P’s: peer-reviewed , published , and prestigious . A peer-reviewed source is one that has been evaluated by a group of experts in the field of the writer. It has undergone the most stringent editing and fact-checking and, when first published, is the most up-to-date information in a field. A published source is one that has also usually undergone some editing before publication – though you’ll want to be wary of self-published sources and online publications (these usually don’t receive the same kind of scrutiny as printed texts).

Finally, it’s certainly okay to use online sources, but you want to make sure they are coming from a prestigious or at least well-known source like a national newspaper or even an established commercial website. A good tip for assessing a source’s quality is to check: does this source cite any outside resources in a works cited or in footnotes?

You want to be sure that you are able to cover a topic thoroughly, given the time and resources allotted. For example, if you have five minutes to give an informative speech to your psychology 101 classmates, you could choose a general topic like, “Why was Sigmund Freud important to psychology?” If you have an hour to give an informative speech at a professional psychology conference, you might provide a detailed account of Sigmund Freud’s most important contributions to a particular branch of modern psychology and explain its current significance to the field, including recent developments in research and clinical practice.

Finally, something crucial to consider is the emotional register of your speech. Is the subject matter something serious like an illness or climate change? Or is it a politically charged topic like immigration or gun control? Is it light, like “how to make pizza dough” or “the invention of the roller coaster?” Or is it merely intriguing or educating like, “personality typing and psychology,” “owning a poodle,” or “Ben Franklin’s top five aphorisms?” Gauging the emotional involvement of your audience will help you choose an appropriate informative speech topic for the project at hand and will ultimately let you craft a more effective speech.

The 126 informative speech ideas below run the gamut from broad to very specific and can all serve as starting points as you brainstorm what you’d like to give a speech on. Good luck!

Health & Medicine Informative Speech Topics

1) Ideas on curbing the spread of future global pandemics.

2) What is the endocrine system?

3) What is a physician’s assistant?

4) The importance of blood donation.

5) Disparities in healthcare between different demographic groups.

6) How did Marie Curie contribute to the medical field?

7) What is the role of nurses in primary care settings?

8) What subspecialties are there in women’s health?

9) What recent developments have been made in knee replacement surgery techniques?

Good Informative Speech Topics/Informative Speech Ideas (Continued)

10) What is Traditional Chinese Medicine?

11) Telehealth and patient outcomes in recent years.

12) How to MRI machines work?

13) Comparing healthcare systems in different countries.

14) The five most important cancer research innovations in the past five years.

15) What is a plague?

16) How does social media affect mental health?

17) What is the World Health Organization?

18) What are the differences between a midwife and an obstetrician?

STEM Informative Speech Topics

19) What are some important differences between commercial and government-sponsored space flight programs?

20) How do rollercoasters work?

21) The relationship between AI and defense.

22) How are robots used in surgeries?

23) How do you solve a quadratic equation?

24) Why are information systems an important part of modern marketing?

25) What recent innovations have been made in the field of machine learning algorithms?

26) How has cloud computing changed in the past five years?

27) What is the role of engineers in mining and extraction?

28) What is a black hole?

29) What is internal combustion?

30) How self-driving cars work.

31) What are some differences between aeronautical and aerospace engineers?

32) What is Euclidian geometry?

33) How is probability be used in sport management?

34) Why are we running out of helium?

35) What is the relationship between cybersecurity and national politics?

36) The most important uses of 3D printing?

Arts & Humanities Informative Speech Topics

37) What are the most likely interpretations of Hamlet’s “To be or not to be?” speech ?

38) What was the Dadaism movement?

39) Why is the Mona Lisa so popular?

40) The differences between highbrow, lowbrow, and commercial cultural production.

41) What are the major tenets of postmodernism?

42) The influences of Alfred Hitchcock on modern cinema.

43) What is the difference between “performance” and “performativity?”

44) What are the differences between an early novel and a romance?

45) Recent developments in literature and ecocriticism.

46) What is the debate on the Elgin Marbles?

47) In what ways was fashion an important element of the Belle Epoch era?

48) The top five most influential texts in speculative fiction.

49) What is pop art?

50) Who was Andy Warhol?

51) What is The Iliad ?

52) Postcolonial studies as an academic field.

53) The history of the Louvre museum.

54) Jane Austen’s narrators and free indirect discourse.

Psychology and Sociology Informative Speech Topics

55) What is the Enneagram and how is it used in therapeutic settings?

56) How did Pierre Bourdieu define “fields?”

57) What is the Panopticon?

58) What is intersectionality?

59) The role of psychologists in school settings.

60) How is behavior psychology related to consumerism and marketing?

61) What is gentrification?

62) The role of the pharmaceutical industry in psychiatric treatment.

63) Who was Sigmund Freud and why is he important?

64) What is the difference between clinical and research psychology?

65) What is the relationship between social media and mental health?

66) What is neuropsychology?

67) What is an ethnographic study?

68) How did Habermas define the public sphere?

69) What is multiple personality disorder?

70) What is are the “gaze” and the “mirror stage,” according to Lacan?

71) Describe the prisoner’s dilemma.

72) What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Nature and Environment Informative Speech Topics

73) What are some pros and cons of wind farming?

74) Why are microbiomes important for health?

75) What is an axolotl?

76) Death Valley: the hottest place on Earth

77) What threats do spotted lanternflies pose?

78) What are the most significant climate change “points of no return?”

79) Water conservation strategies in the American West.

80) What is biodiversity?

81) How do dolphins communicate?

82) Why was Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring significant for the environmentalist movement?

83) How was the Santorini caldera created?

84) What are plate tectonics?

85) How and why tornadoes happen.

86) What is the El Niño phenomenon and why is it important?

87) Fungus and blue spruce disease in Northeast Ohio.

88) What measures are being taken to curb deforestation in the Amazon?

89) How is the Galapagos ecosystem preserved today?

90) Floridian ecosystems and the Red Tide.

Business, Marketing, Finance and Economy

91) The role of sports merchandising in U.S. women’s Olympic events.

92) Subprime mortgages and the housing market crash of 2008.

93) What are the eight best steps you can take to better your personal finances?

94) Which social media platforms are most lucrative for marketing to each current online generation?

95) What is inflation?

96) What is the relationship between politics and the unemployment rate?

97) What is market saturation?

98) How do we measure the GDP of emergent nations?

99) What developments to we expect to see in the industry competition between EVs and regular automobiles?

100) What is an index fund? What is a mutual fund?

101) Bond holdings late in retirement.

102) The role of social justice in branding.

103) How does search engine optimization work for marketing?

104) Is the influencer economy a bubble?

105) Describe the differences between a CFA and a CPA.

106) What developments have we seen in start-up economies in the past five years?

107) What is embezzlement?

108) What is the history of human resource departments?

History and Travel

109) The religious persuasions of each of Henry VIII’s wives .

110) How the aqueduct system worked in ancient Rome

111) What are the tallest buildings in the world?

112) What was the Black Death?

113) The Watergate Scandal.

114) In what ways was the printing press an important invention?

115) What is the Chernobyl site like today?

116) What was the relationship between Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla?

117) Why was the Great Wall of China built?

118) Who were medieval anchorites?

119) The political significance of whistle-stop train tours.

120) What was the significance of the Second Boer War?

121) The Tennis Court Oath .

122) What are the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?

123) Witch hunting in 1600s New England.

124) What was the Space Race?

125) Why are the bodies of Pompeiians preserved?

126) What is Machu Picchu?

Good Informative Speech Topics – Works Cited

[i] Lloyd-Hughes, Sarah. How to Be Brilliant at Public Speaking: Any Audience, Any Situation . Pearson Educated Limited, Edinburgh 2011.

[ii] Downs, Douglas and Elizabeth Wardle. “What Can a Novice Contribute? Undergraduate Researchers in First-Year Composition,” Undergraduate Research in English Studies (2010) pp. 173-90).

[iii] Graff, Gerard, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say / I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing . W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2006.

Informative Speech Ideas – Additional Reading

149 Capstone Project Ideas and Examples
100 Best Political Science Research Topics
64 Social Issues Topics
High School Success

Jamie Smith

For the past decade, Jamie has taught writing and English literature at several universities, including Boston College, the University of Pittsburgh, and Carnegie Mellon University. She earned a Ph.D. in English from Carnegie Mellon, where she currently teaches courses and conducts research on composition, public writing, and British literature.

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Research: Using AI at Work Makes Us Lonelier and Less Healthy

David De Cremer
Joel Koopman

Employees who use AI as a core part of their jobs report feeling more isolated, drinking more, and sleeping less than employees who don’t.

The promise of AI is alluring — optimized productivity, lightning-fast data analysis, and freedom from mundane tasks — and both companies and workers alike are fascinated (and more than a little dumbfounded) by how these tools allow them to do more and better work faster than ever before. Yet in fervor to keep pace with competitors and reap the efficiency gains associated with deploying AI, many organizations have lost sight of their most important asset: the humans whose jobs are being fragmented into tasks that are increasingly becoming automated. Across four studies, employees who use it as a core part of their jobs reported feeling lonelier, drinking more, and suffering from insomnia more than employees who don’t.

Imagine this: Jia, a marketing analyst, arrives at work, logs into her computer, and is greeted by an AI assistant that has already sorted through her emails, prioritized her tasks for the day, and generated first drafts of reports that used to take hours to write. Jia (like everyone who has spent time working with these tools) marvels at how much time she can save by using AI. Inspired by the efficiency-enhancing effects of AI, Jia feels that she can be so much more productive than before. As a result, she gets focused on completing as many tasks as possible in conjunction with her AI assistant.

David De Cremer is a professor of management and technology at Northeastern University and the Dunton Family Dean of its D’Amore-McKim School of Business. His website is daviddecremer.com .
JK Joel Koopman is the TJ Barlow Professor of Business Administration at the Mays Business School of Texas A&M University. His research interests include prosocial behavior, organizational justice, motivational processes, and research methodology. He has won multiple awards from Academy of Management’s HR Division (Early Career Achievement Award and David P. Lepak Service Award) along with the 2022 SIOP Distinguished Early Career Contributions award, and currently serves on the Leadership Committee for the HR Division of the Academy of Management .

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Americans’ Views of Government’s Role: Persistent Divisions and Areas of Agreement

2. Americans’ views of government aid to poor, role in health care and Social Security

Table of contents.

Views on the efficiency of government
Views on the government’s regulation of business
Confidence in the nation’s ability to solve problems
Views on the effect of government aid to the poor
Views on government’s role in health care
Views on the future of Social Security
Trust in government
Feelings toward the federal government
Acknowledgments
The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Majorities of Americans see a role for government on several safety net issues.

Chart shows Republicans and Democrats continue to diverge over government aid to poor

65% say the government has a responsibility to ensure all Americans have health care coverage.
55% say government aid to the poor does more good than harm.
79% say Social Security benefits should not be reduced in any way.

A majority of Americans (55%) say that, overall, government aid to the poor does more good than harm, while about four-in-ten (43%) say it does more harm than good.

Republicans and Republican-leaning independents continue to be critical of government aid to the poor:

65% say government aid does more harm than good, while 34% say it does more good than harm.
However, the share of Republicans saying government aid has a positive effect is up 6 percentage points since 2022.

As in past years, about three-quarters of Democrats (76%) say government aid to the poor has an overall positive effect (23% say it does more harm).

Chart shows Support for additional aid to the needy, even if it adds to the national debt, drops off from pandemic levels

About half of Americans (52%) now say the government should do more to help the needy, even if it means going deeper into debt. By comparison, 45% say the government can’t afford to do much more to help the needy.

Support for doing more to help those in need, even if the debt increases, is 6 percentage points lower than it was in June 2020, in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic.

About seven-in-ten Democrats (72%) say the government should do more to help the needy, down from 79% who said the same in 2020.
A far smaller share of Republicans – 33% – say the government should do more even if it leads to additional debt. Views among Republicans are largely unchanged since 2020.

Government assistance to people in need

Chart shows Younger adults, Black Americans and Democrats are most likely to say government should provide more assistance to people in need

About four-in-ten Americans (41%) say the government should provide more assistance to people in need, while about a quarter say it should provide less (27%). Three-in-ten say the government is providing about the right amount of assistance.

Like other attitudes about social safety net policies, there are wide partisan differences.

Six-in-ten Democrats say the government should provide more assistance to people in need. Just one-in-ten say it should provide less, while three-in-ten say the current level is about right.

By comparison, 46% of Republicans say the government should provide less assistance, while 21% say it should provide more.Three-in-ten say the government is providing the right amount of assistance.

There are other demographic differences:

Two-thirds of Black adults say the government should provide more assistance to people in need, while smaller shares of Asian (40%), Hispanic (39%) and White (37%) adults say the same.
Younger adults are more likely than older adults to say the government should provide more assistance.
A majority of lower-income adults (56%) say the government should provide more assistance. Smaller shares of middle- (36%) and upper-income (31%) adults say the same.

About two-thirds of Americans (65%) say it is the federal government’s responsibility to make sure all Americans have health care coverage, while roughly a third (34%) say it does not.

Chart shows Higher shares of Republicans now say health care is up to the federal government

Americans are slightly more likely to say it is the government’s responsibility to ensure health care coverage for all than they were a few years ago (62% in 2021). While Democratic opinion has not changed over this period, the share of Republicans who say government has this responsibility has grown.

Four-in-ten Republicans and Republican-leaning independents now say it is the government’s responsibility to ensure health care coverage for all, up from 32% who said this in 2022. Six-in-ten say it is not the government’s responsibility, down from 68% who said the same three years ago.
Democrats and Democratic leaners overwhelmingly hold the view that the government has a responsibility to ensure health care coverage: 88% say this. Democrats’ views on this question are largely unchanged in recent years.

Views by party and income

Majorities of adults at all income levels say the government is responsible for ensuring health care coverage. However, lower-income adults (73%) are more likely than upper- (63%) or middle-income (62%) adults to say this.

Chart shows Wide income gap among Republicans in views of government’s responsibility to ensure health care coverage

Among Republicans, there are differences within income groups on whether government is responsible for ensuring all Americans have health care coverage:

56% of lower-income Republicans say it is the government’s responsibility to make sure all Americans have health care coverage, including about a quarter (24%) who say this should be done through a single national government program.
Middle-income (36%) and upper-income Republicans (29%) are far less likely to say the government has a responsibility to ensure people have health care coverage. Majorities in both of these groups say it is not the government’s responsibility.

By comparison, more than eight-in-ten Democrats across all income levels say the government is responsible for ensuring all Americans have health care coverage.

Overall, about half of Democrats (53%) say this should be done through a single national government program. About six-in-ten upper-income (57%) and middle-income (58%) Democrats say this, compared with about four-in-ten lower-income Democrats (43%).

Americans overwhelmingly (79%) say Social Security benefits should not be reduced in any way, including four-in-ten who say it should cover more people with greater benefits. Roughly two-in-ten (19%) say some future reductions need to be considered.

Chart shows Overwhelming majority of Americans are against reducing Social Security benefits

Wide majorities of both Republicans and Democrats do not support Social Security benefit reductions: 77% of Republicans and 83% of Democrats say Social Security benefits should not be reduced in any way.

However, Democrats (51%) are more likely than Republicans (29%) to say Social Security should be expanded.

Across demographic groups there is broad opposition to Social Security benefit cuts. But there are more sizable differences in support for expanding benefits:

Black (58%) and Hispanic (51%) adults are more likely than White (33%) and Asian (38%) adults to say benefits should be expanded.
Older adults are less likely than those in other age groups to say benefits should be expanded to cover more people with greater benefits: 26% of those 65 and older say this. By comparison, adults under 30 (51%) are most likely to favor expansion.
Lower-income adults are the most supportive of expanding Social Security benefits: 53% say this, compared with 39% of those in middle-income families and 23% of upper-income adults.

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100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

Sociology is a study of society, relationships, and culture. It can include multiple topics—ranging from class and social mobility to the Internet and marriage traditions. Research in sociology is used to inform policy makers , educators , businesses , social workers , non-profits , etc.

Below are 100 sociology research topics you can use right now, divided by general topic headings. Feel free to adapt these according to your specific interest. You'll always conduct more thorough and informed research if it's a topic you're passionate about.

Art, Food, Music, and Culture

Does art imitate life or does life imitate art?
How has globalization changed local culture?
What role does food play in cultural identity?
Does technology use affect people's eating habits?
How has fast food affected society?
How can clean eating change a person's life for the better?
Should high-sugar drinks be banned from school campuses?
How can travel change a person for the better?
How does music affect the thoughts and actions of teenagers?
Should performance artists be held partially responsible if someone is inspired by their music to commit a crime?
What are some examples of cultural misappropriation?
What role does music play in cultural identity?

Social Solutions and Cultural Biases

What (if any) are the limits of free speech in a civil society?
What are some reasonable solutions to overpopulation?
What are some ways in which different types of media content influence society's attitudes and behaviors?
What is the solution to stop the rise of homegrown terrorism in the U.S.?
Should prescription drug companies be allowed to advertise directly to consumers?
Is the global warming movement a hoax? Why or why not?
Should the drinking age be lowered?
Should more gun control laws be enacted in the U.S.?
What bias exists against people who are obese?
Should polygamy be legal in the U.S.? Why or why not?
Should there be a legal penalty for using racial slurs?
Should the legal working age of young people be raised or lowered?
Should the death penalty be used in all cases involving first-degree murder?
Should prisons be privately owned? Why or why not?
What is privilege? How is it defined and how can it be used to gain access to American politics and positions of power?
How are women discriminated against in the workplace?
What role does feminism play in current American politics?
What makes a patriot?
Compare/analyze the social views of Plato and Aristotle
How has labor migration changed America?
What important skills have been lost in an industrialized West?
Is the #MeToo movement an important one? Why or why not?
What conflict resolution skills would best serve us in the present times?
How can violence against women be dealt with to lower incidence rates?
Should students be allowed to take any subject they want in High School and avoid the ones they don't like?
How should bullies be dealt with in our country's schools?
Do standardized tests improve education or have the opposite effect?
Should school children be forced to go through metal detectors?
What is the best teacher/student ratio for enhanced learning in school?
Do school uniforms decrease teasing and bullying? If so, how?
Should teachers make more money?
Should public education be handled through private enterprises (like charter schools)?
Should religious education be given priority over academic knowledge?
How can schools help impoverished students in ways that won't embarrass them?
What are ethical values that should be considered in education?
Is it the state's role or the parents' role to educate children? Or a combination of both?
Should education be given more political priority than defense and war?
What would a perfect educational setting look like? How would it operate and what subjects would be taught?

Marriage and Family

How should a "family" be defined? Can it be multiple definitions?
What is a traditional role taken on by women that would be better handled by a man (and vice versa)?
How has marriage changed in the United States?
What are the effects of divorce on children?
Is there a negative effect on children who are adopted by a family whose ethnicity is different than their own?
Can children receive all they need from a single parent?
Does helicopter parenting negatively affect children?
Is marriage outdated?
Should teens have access to birth control without their parents' permission?
Should children be forced to show physical affection (hugs, etc.) to family members they're uncomfortable around?
What are the benefits (or negative impact) of maintaining traditional gender roles in a family?
Are social networks safe for preteens and teens? Why or why not?
Should the government have a say in who can get married?
What (if any) are the benefits of arranged marriages?
What are the benefits for (or negative impact on) children being adopted by LGBTQ couples?
How long should two people date before they marry?
Should children be forced to be involved in activities (such as sports, gymnastics, clubs, etc.), even when they'd rather sit at home and play video games all day?
Should parents be required to take a parenting class before having children?
What are potential benefits to being married but choosing not to have children?

Generational

Should communities take better care of their elderly? How?
What are some generational differences among Generations X, Y, and Z?
What benefits do elderly people get from interaction with children?
How has Generation Y changed the country so far?
What are the differences in communication styles between Generation X and Generation Y (Millennials)?
Why could we learn from our elders that could not be learned from books?
Should the elderly live with their immediate family (children and grandchildren)? How would this resolve some of our country's current problems?
What are some positive or negative consequences to intergenerational marriage?

Sociology explores themes of community and relationships.

Spiritualism, religion, and superstition

Why do some people believe in magic?
What is the difference between religion and spiritualism?
Should a government be a theocracy? Why or why not?
How has religion helped (or harmed) our country?
Should religious leaders be able to support a particular candidate from their pulpit?
How have religious cults shaped the nation?
Should students at religious schools be forced to take state tests?
How has our human connection with nature changed while being trapped in crowded cities?
Which generation from the past 200 years made the biggest impact on culture with their religious practice and beliefs? Explain your answer.

Addiction and Mental Health

How should our society deal with addicts?
What are ethical values that should be considered in mental health treatment?
Should mental health be required coverage on all insurance policies?
Is mental health treatment becoming less stigmatized?
How would better access to mental health change our country?
What are some things we're addicted to as a society that are not seen as "addiction," per se?
Should medicinal marijuana be made legal?
What are some alternative treatments for mental health and wellness instead of antidepressants?
Has social media helped or harmed our society?
Are video games addictive for young people and what should be done to curb the addiction?
Should all recreational drugs be made legal?
How has mental health treatment changed in the past 20 years?
Should recreational marijuana be made legal?
How is family counseling a good option for families going through conflict?
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Older women's health is woefully understudied

Medical research has shortchanged women for decades. This is particularly true of older women, leaving them without critically important information.

Many drugs widely prescribed to older adults were studied mostly in men, with results extrapolated to women. Consider the Alzheimer’s drug Leqembi, approved by the FDA last year after the manufacturer reported a 27% slower rate of cognitive decline in people who took the medication. A study in the New England Journal of Medicine revealed that sex differences were substantial: a 12% slowdown for women, compared with a 43% slowdown for men. And nearly two-thirds of older adults with Alzheimer’s are women.

“It’s assumed that women’s biology doesn’t matter and that women who are premenopausal and those who are postmenopausal respond similarly,” said Stephanie Faubion, director of the Mayo Clinic’s Center for Women’s Health. “This has got to stop.”

Older women are also more likely than older men to have multiple medical conditions, disabilities, difficulties with daily activities, autoimmune illness, depression and anxiety, uncontrolled high blood pressure and osteoarthritis, among other issues, according to scores of research studies.

Even so, women outlive men by more than five years in the U.S. Which means that older women outnumber older men by significant margins. If we’re concerned about the health of the older population, we need to be concerned about the health of older women.

Late last year, the Biden administration promised to address this problem with the new White House Initiative on Women’s Health Research . Which raises the question: What priorities should be on its list for older women?

Here’s what doctors and researchers suggested.

Heart disease

Women with heart disease, which becomes far more common after menopause and kills more women than any other condition, are given less care.

“We’re notably less aggressive,” said Martha Gulati, associate director of the Barbra Streisand Women’s Heart Center at Cedars-Sinai in Los Angeles. “We delay evaluations for chest pain. We don’t give blood thinners at the same rate. We don’t do procedures like aortic valve replacements as often. We’re not adequately addressing hypertension. We need to figure out why these biases in care exist and how to remove them.”

Older women are less likely than their male peers to have obstructive coronary artery disease and undetected damage to smaller blood vessels, Gulati said. When they get procedures such as cardiac catheterizations, women have more bleeding and complications.

What are the best treatments for older women given these issues? “We have very limited data. This needs to be a focus,” Gulati said.

Brain and mental health

How can women reduce their risk of cognitive decline and dementia as they age? “We really need to have clear messages for women and effective interventions that are feasible and accessible,” said JoAnn Manson, a key researcher for the Women’s Health Initiative , the largest study of women’s health in the U.S.

Numerous factors affect women’s brain health, including stress – sexism, caregiving responsibilities and financial strain. Older women lose estrogen, a hormone important to brain health. They have a higher incidence of conditions with serious brain impacts such as multiple sclerosis and stroke.

Older women are also more vulnerable to anxiety and depression. Studies suggest a variety of factors, including hormonal changes and cumulative stress. Paula Rochon, a professor of geriatrics at the University of Toronto, also faulted “gendered ageism” in an interview in Nature Aging.

Helen Lavretsky, past president of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, named several topics that need further investigation. How does menopause impact mood and stress-related disorders? What nonpharmaceutical interventions can promote resilience in older women and help them recover? What combination of interventions is likely to be most effective?

Cancer screening and treatment

Supriya Gupta Mohile, director of the Geriatric Oncology Research Group at the University of Rochester, wants better guidance about breast cancer screening for older women.

“Right now, I think we’re underscreening fit older women and overscreening frail older women,” Mohile said.

The doctor also wants more research about effective, safe and tolerable treatments for lung cancer in older women, many of whom have multiple medical conditions and functional impairments. The age-sensitive condition kills more women than breast cancer.

Bone health and frailty

Osteoporosis is more common in older women than older men, increasing the risk of dangerous fractures and falls.

Jane Cauley, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh, wants more data about the condition among older Black, Asian and Hispanic women, who are undertreated. She also wants better drugs with fewer side effects.

Marcia Stefanick, a professor at Stanford University School of Medicine, wants to know which strategies are most likely to motivate older women to be physically active. And she’d like more studies investigating how older women can best preserve muscle mass, strength and the ability to care for themselves.

“Frailty is one of the biggest problems for older women,” she said. “Learning what can be done to prevent that is essential.”

KFF Health News is a national newsroom that produces in-depth journalism about health issues and is one of the core operating programs at KFF – an independent source of health policy research, polling and journalism.

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Table 13.1 "Theory Snapshot" summarizes what they say. Good health and effective medical care are essential for the smooth functioning of society. Patients must perform the "sick role" in order to be perceived as legitimately ill and to be exempt from their normal obligations.
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Health Sociology Review is an international peer-reviewed journal, which publishes high quality conceptual and empirical research in the sociology of health, illness and medicine.. Published three times per year, the journal prioritises original research papers, papers that advance theory and methodology in the field of health sociology and special issues on matters of central importance to ...
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Because much sociology of health research has been U.S.-centric, as have many reviews, the literature cited is framed in a cross-national context. ... HIV/AIDS, chronic NCDs, and malaria and NTDs. These are important research and public health topics across all nations, but the nature of global disparities and stigma of disease make these ...
Handbook on the Sociology of Health and Medicine
This timely Handbook provides an essential guide to the major topics, perspectives, and scholars in the sociology of health and medicine. Contributors prove the immense value of a sociological understanding of central health and medical concerns, including public health, the COVID-19 pandemic, and new medical technologies. Original language.
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Medical sociology can also be defined as the scientific study of the social patterning of health. In this case, it is a study of how social factors (e.g., class, race, gender, religion , ethnicity, kinship network, marriage, educational status, age, place , and cultural practices) influence human health.
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in the social world (p. 11).Health consciousness: The degree to which an individual is aware of an. attentive to health (p. 7).Health sociology: Sociological analysis of social structures and behavioral practices that influence both pe. sonal and population health. This perspective focuses on good health as well as ill health and critically ...
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Apr 8, 2016. Answer. Salutogenesis describes an approach focusing on factors that support human health and wellbeing, rather than on factors that cause disease. More specifically, the salutogenic ...
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100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now
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