bibliography research format

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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• If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
• If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
• If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
• All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

• A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
• A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

• Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
• Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
• Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
• Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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How to Write a Bibliography in APA Format

• APA Bibliography
• How to Create One
• Why You Need It

Sample Bibliography

An APA format bibliography lists all of the sources that might be used in a paper. A bibliography can be a great tool to help you keep track of information during the research and writing process. In some cases, your instructor may require you to include a bibliography as part of your assignment.

At a Glance

A well-written APA format bibliography can help you keep track of information and sources as you research and write your psychology paper. To create a bibliography, gather up all of the sources that you might use in your paper. Create an APA format reference for each source and then write a brief annotation. Your annotation should be a brief summary of what each reference is about. You can quickly refer to these annotations When writing your paper and determine which to include.

What Is an APA Format Bibliography?

An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write an academic paper, essay, article, or research paper—particularly work that is covering psychology or psychology-related topics. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA). This format is used by many psychology professors, students, and researchers.

Even if it is not a required part of your assignment, writing a bibliography can help you keep track of your sources and make it much easier to create your final reference page in proper APA format.

Creating an APA Bibliography

A bibliography is similar in many ways to a reference section , but there are some important differences. While a reference section includes every source that was actually used in your paper, a bibliography may include sources that you considered using but may have dismissed because they were irrelevant or outdated.

Bibliographies can be a great way to keep track of information you might want to use in your paper and to organize the information that you find in different sources. The following are four steps you can follow to create your APA format bibliography.

Start on a New Page

Your working bibliography should be kept separate from the rest of your paper. Start it on a new page, with the title "Bibliography" centered at the top and in bold text. Some people use the title "References" instead, so it's best to check with your professor or instructor about which they prefer you to use.

Gather Your Sources

Compile all the sources you might possibly use in your paper. While you might not use all of these sources in your paper, having a complete list will make it easier later on when you prepare your reference section.

Gathering your sources can be particularly helpful when outlining and writing your paper.

By quickly glancing through your working bibliography, you will be able to get a better idea of which sources will be the most appropriate to support your thesis and main points.

Reference Each Source

Your references should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name, and they should be double-spaced. The first line of each reference should be flush left, while each additional line of a single reference should be a few spaces to the right of the left margin, which is known as a hanging indent.

The format of each source is as follows for academic journals:

• Last name of first author (followed by their first initial)
• The year the source was published in parentheses
• The title of the source
• The journal that published the source (in italics)
• The volume number, if applicable (in italics)
• The issue number, if applicable
• Page numbers (in parentheses)
• The URL or "doi" in lowercase letters followed by a colon and the doi number, if applicable

The following examples are scholarly articles in academic journals, cited in APA format:

• Kulacaoglu, F., & Kose, S. (2018). Borderline personality disorder (BPD): In the midst of vulnerability, chaos, and awe.  Brain sciences ,  8 (11), 201. doi:10.3390/brainsci8110201
• Cattane, N., Rossi, R., & Lanfredi, M. (2017). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms.  BMC Psychiatry,   18 (221). doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2

Visit the American Psychological Association's website for more information on citing other types of sources including online media, audiovisual media, and more.

Create an Annotation for Each Source

Normally a bibliography contains only references' information, but in some cases you might decide to create an annotated bibliography. An annotation is a summary or evaluation of the source.

An annotation is a brief description of approximately 150 words describing the information in the source, your evaluation of its credibility, and how it pertains to your topic. Writing one of these for each piece of research will make your writing process faster and easier.

This step helpful in determining which sources to ultimately use in your paper. Your instructor may also require it as part of the assignment so they can assess your thought process and understanding of your topic.

Reasons to Write a Bibliography

One of the biggest reasons to create an APA format bibliography is simply to make the research and writing process easier.

If you do not have a comprehensive list of all of your references, you might find yourself scrambling to figure out where you found certain bits of information that you included in your paper.

A bibliography is also an important tool that your readers can use to access your sources.

While writing an annotated bibliography might not be required for your assignment, it can be a very useful step. The process of writing an annotation helps you learn more about your topic, develop a deeper understanding of the subject, and become better at evaluating various sources of information.

The following is an example of an APA format bibliography by the website EasyBib:

There are many online resources that demonstrate different formats of bibliographies, including the American Psychological Association website . Purdue University's Online Writing Lab also has examples of formatting an APA format bibliography.

Check out this video on their YouTube channel which provides detailed instructions on formatting an APA style bibliography in Microsoft Word.

You can check out the Purdue site for more information on writing an annotated APA bibliography as well.

What This Means For You

If you are taking a psychology class, you may be asked to create a bibliography as part of the research paper writing process. Even if your instructor does not expressly require a bibliography, creating one can be a helpful way to help structure your research and make the writing process more manageable.

For psychology majors , it can be helpful to save any bibliographies you have written throughout your studies so that you can refer back to them later when studying for exams or writing papers for other psychology courses.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 7th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2020.

Masic I. The importance of proper citation of references in biomedical articles.   Acta Inform Med . 2013;21(3):148–155. doi:10.5455/aim.2013.21.148-155

American Psychological Association. How do you format a bibliography in APA Style?

Cornell University Library. How to prepare an annotated bibliography: The annotated bibliography .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Published on 1 May 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 7 November 2022.

In Harvard style , the bibliography or reference list provides full references for the sources you used in your writing.

• A reference list consists of entries corresponding to your in-text citations .
• A bibliography sometimes also lists sources that you consulted for background research, but did not cite in your text.

The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. If in doubt about which to include, check with your instructor or department.

The information you include in a reference varies depending on the type of source, but it usually includes the author, date, and title of the work, followed by details of where it was published. You can automatically generate accurate references using our free reference generator:

Harvard Reference Generator

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Table of contents

Formatting a harvard style bibliography, harvard reference examples, referencing sources with multiple authors, referencing sources with missing information, frequently asked questions about harvard bibliographies.

Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading ‘Reference list’ or ‘Bibliography’ appears at the top.

Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used:

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Reference list or bibliography entries always start with the author’s last name and initial, the publication date and the title of the source. The other information required varies depending on the source type. Formats and examples for the most common source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . City: Publisher.
Example	Coetzee, J. M. (2000) . London: Vintage.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Chapter title’, in Editor name (ed(s).) . City: Publisher, pp. page range.
Example	Greenblatt, S. (2010) ‘The traces of Shakespeare’s life’, in De Grazia, M. and Wells, S. (eds.) . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–14.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . Translated from the [language] by ranslator name. City: Publisher.
Example	Saramago, J. (1997) . Translated from the Portuguese by G. Gontiero. London: Vintage.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . Edition. City: Publisher.
Example	Danielson, D. (ed.) (1999) . 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Notes

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal without DOI

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue), pp. page range.
Example	Maceachen, D. B. (1950) ‘Wilkie Collins and British law’, , 5(2), pp. 121–139.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue), page range. DOI.
Example	Adamson, P. (2019) ‘American history at the foreign office: Exporting the silent epic Western’, , 31(2), pp. 32–59. doi:10.2979/filmhistory.31.2.02.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue), pagerange. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Theroux, A. (1990) ‘Henry James’s Boston’, , 20(2), pp. 158–165. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20153016 (Accessed: 13 February 2020).
Notes

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Google (2019) . Available at: https://policies.google.com/terms?hl=en-US (Accessed: 29 April 2020).
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Rakich, N. (2020) ‘How does Biden stack up to past Democratic nominees?’, , 28 April. Available at: https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-does-biden-stack-up-to-past-democratic-nominees/ (Accessed: 29 April 2020).
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. [username] (Year) or text [Website name] Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Dorsey, J. [@jack] (2018) We’re committing Twitter to help increase the collective health, openness, and civility of public conversation … [Twitter] 1 March. Available at: https://twitter.com/jack/status/969234275420655616 (Accessed: 29 April 2020).
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) [Medium]. Institution, City or Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Bosch, H. (1482) [Triptych]. Groeningemuseum, Bruges.
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) . Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Vox (2020) . 10 April. Available at: https://youtu.be/BE-cA4UK07c (Accessed: 29 April 2020).
Notes

Newspapers and magazines

• Newspaper article
• Magazine article

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , date, p. page number. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Butler, S. (2020) ‘Women’s fashion manufacturer to make reusable gowns for NHS’, , 28 April. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/apr/28/womens-fashion-manufacturer-to-make-reusable-gowns-for-nhs (Accessed: 29 April 2020).
Notes

Format	Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue) or (Month) or (Season), pp. page range. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
Example	Newman, J. (2020) ‘For autistic youths entering adulthood, a new world of challenges awaits’, , (May), pp. 20–24.
Notes

When a source has up to three authors, list all of them in the order their names appear on the source. If there are four or more, give only the first name followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Number of authors	Reference example
1 author	Davis, V. (2019) …
2 authors	Davis, V. and Barrett, M. (2019) …
3 authors	Davis, V., Barrett, M. and McLachlan, F. (2019) …
4+ authors	Davis, V. (2019) …

Sometimes a source won’t list all the information you need for your reference. Here’s what to do when you don’t know the publication date or author of a source.

Some online sources, as well as historical documents, may lack a clear publication date. In these cases, you can replace the date in the reference list entry with the words ‘no date’. With online sources, you still include an access date at the end:

When a source doesn’t list an author, you can often list a corporate source as an author instead, as with ‘Scribbr’ in the above example. When that’s not possible, begin the entry with the title instead of the author:

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Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

	In-text citation	Reference list
1 author	(Smith, 2014)	Smith, T. (2014) …
2 authors	(Smith and Jones, 2014)	Smith, T. and Jones, F. (2014) …
3 authors	(Smith, Jones and Davies, 2014)	Smith, T., Jones, F. and Davies, S. (2014) …
4+ authors	(Smith , 2014)	Smith, T. (2014) …

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :

• Highlight all the entries
• Click on the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the ‘Paragraph’ tab in the top menu.
• In the pop-up window, under ‘Special’ in the ‘Indentation’ section, use the drop-down menu to select ‘Hanging’.
• Then close the window with ‘OK’.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 30 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-bibliography/

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Other students also liked, a quick guide to harvard referencing | citation examples, harvard in-text citation | a complete guide & examples, referencing books in harvard style | templates & examples, scribbr apa citation checker.

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• Citing sources

Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles

Published on June 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on November 7, 2022.

A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing . You always need a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism . How you present these citations depends on the style you follow. Scribbr’s citation generator can help!

Different styles are set by different universities, academic associations, and publishers, often published in an official handbook with in-depth instructions and examples.

There are many different citation styles, but they typically use one of three basic approaches: parenthetical citations , numerical citations, or note citations.

Parenthetical citations

• Chicago (Turabian) author-date

CSE name-year

Numerical citations

CSE citation-name or citation-sequence

Note citations

• Chicago (Turabian) notes and bibliography

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Table of contents

Types of citation: parenthetical, note, numerical, which citation style should i use, parenthetical citation styles, numerical citation styles, note citation styles, frequently asked questions about citation styles.

The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the text are presented. There are three main approaches:

• Parenthetical citations: You include identifying details of the source in parentheses in the text—usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if relevant ( author-date ). Sometimes the publication date is omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in superscript, which corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote, which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

In most cases, your university, department, or instructor will tell you which citation style you need to follow in your writing. If you’re not sure, it’s best to consult your institution’s guidelines or ask someone. If you’re submitting to a journal, they will usually require a specific style.

Sometimes, the choice of citation style may be left up to you. In those cases, you can base your decision on which citation styles are commonly used in your field. Try reading other articles from your discipline to see how they cite their sources, or consult the table below.

Discipline	Typical citation style(s)
Economics
Engineering & IT
Humanities	; ;
Law	;
Medicine	; ;
Political science
Psychology
Sciences	; ; ; ;
Social sciences	; ; ;

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommends citing your sources using Chicago author-date style . AAA style doesn’t have its own separate rules. This style is used in the field of anthropology.

AAA reference entry	Clarke, Kamari M. 2013. “Notes on Cultural Citizenship in the Black Atlantic World.” 28, no. 3 (August): 464–474. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43898483.
AAA in-text citation	(Clarke 2013)

APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various disciplines, especially in the social sciences.

	Wagemann, J. & Weger, U. (2021). Perceiving the other self: An experimental first-person account of nonverbal social interaction. , (4), 441–461. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0441
	(Wagemann & Weger, 2021)

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The citation style of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is used mainly in the field of political science.

APSA reference entry	Ward, Lee. 2020. “Equity and Political Economy in Thomas Hobbes.” , 64 (4): 823–35. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12507.
APSA in-text citation	(Ward 2020)

The citation style of the American Sociological Association (ASA) is used primarily in the discipline of sociology.

ASA reference entry	Kootstra, Anouk. 2016. “Deserving and Undeserving Welfare Claimants in Britain and the Netherlands: Examining the Role of Ethnicity and Migration Status Using a Vignette Experiment.” 32(3): 325–338. doi:10.1093/esr/jcw010.
ASA in-text citation	(Kootstra 2016)

Chicago author-date

Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.

	Encarnação, João, and Gonçalo Calado. 2018. “Effects of Recreational Diving on Early Colonization Stages of an Artificial Reef in North-East Atlantic.” 22, no. 6 (December): 1209–1216. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45380397.
	(Encarnação and Calado 2018)

The citation style of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) is used in various scientific disciplines. It includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the name-year system.

CSE name-year reference entry	Graham JR. 2019. The structure and stratigraphical relations of the Lough Nafooey Group, South Mayo. Irish Journal of Earth Sciences. 37: 1–18.
CSE name-year citation	(Graham 2019)

Harvard style is often used in the field of economics. It is also very widely used across disciplines in UK universities. There are various versions of Harvard style defined by different universities—it’s not a style with one definitive style guide.

	Hoffmann, M. (2016) ‘How is information valued? Evidence from framed field experiments’, , 126(595), pp. 1884–1911. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12401.
	(Hoffmann, 2016)

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MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than author-date.

	Davidson, Clare. “Reading in Bed with .” , vol. 55, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 147–170. https://doi.org/10.5325/chaucerrev.55.2.0147.
	(Davidson 155)

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The American Chemical Society (ACS) provides guidelines for a citation style using numbers in superscript or italics in the text, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list at the end. It is used in chemistry.

ACS reference entry

1. Hutchinson, G.; Alamillo-Ferrer, C.; Fernández-Pascual, M.; Burés, J. Organocatalytic Enantioselective α-Bromination of Aldehydes with -Bromosuccinimide. , 87,   7968–7974.

The American Medical Association ( AMA ) provides guidelines for a numerical citation style using superscript numbers in the text, which correspond to entries in a numbered reference list. It is used in the field of medicine.

1. Jabro JD. Predicting saturated hydraulic conductivity from percolation test results in layered silt loam soils. . 2009;72(5):22–27.

CSE style includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the citation-name and citation-sequence systems. Your references are listed alphabetically in the citation-name system; in the citation-sequence system, they appear in the order in which you cited them.

CSE citation-sequence or citation-name reference entry

1. Nell CS, Mooney KA. Plant structural complexity mediates trade-off in direct and indirect plant defense by birds. Ecology. 2019;100(10):1–7.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) provides guidelines for citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in various engineering and IT disciplines.

IEEE reference entry

1. J. Ive, A. Max, and F. Yvon, “Reassessing the proper place of man and machine in translation: A pre-translation scenario,” , vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 279–308, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s10590-018-9223-9.

The National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation style is defined in Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition).

NLM reference entry

1. Hage J, Valadez JJ. Institutionalizing and sustaining social change in health systems: the case of Uganda. Health Policy Plan. 2017 Nov;32(9):1248–55. doi:10.1093/heapol/czx066.

Vancouver style is also used in various medical disciplines. As with Harvard style, a lot of institutions and publications have their own versions of Vancouver—it doesn’t have one fixed style guide.

Vancouver reference entry

1. Bute M. A backstage sociologist: Autoethnography and a populist vision. Am Soc. 2016 Mar 23; 47(4):499–515. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12108-016-9307-z doi:10.1007/s12108-016-9307-z

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The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It’s widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines.

Bluebook footnote citation

David E. Pozen, , 165, U. P🇦​​​​​. L. R🇪🇻​​​​​​​​​​. 1097, 1115 (2017).

Chicago notes and bibliography

Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.

	Best, Jeremy. “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I.” 47, no. 3 (September 2014): 585–611. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654.
	1. Jeremy Best, “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I,” 47, no. 3 (September 2014): 599. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities ( OSCOLA ) is the main legal citation style in the UK (similar to Bluebook for the US).

OSCOLA footnote citation

1. Chris Thornhill, ‘The Mutation of International Law in Contemporary Constitutions: Thinking Sociologically about Political Constitutionalism’ [2016] MLR 207.

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

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How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

Learn how to easily write a bibliography by following the format outlined in this article.

This resource will help your students properly cite different resources in the bibliography of a research paper, and how to format those citations, for books, encyclopedias, films, websites, and people.

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What is a bibliography?

According to Infoplease.com, A bibliography is a list of the types of sources you used to get information for your report. It is included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).

What are the types of bibliography styles (MLA, APA, etc.)?

The 3 most common bibliography/citation styles are:

• MLA Style: The Modern Language Association works cited page style
• APA Style: The American Psychological Association style
• Chicago Style: The bibliography style defined by the Chicago Manual of Style

We’ll give examples of how to create bibliography entries in various styles further down in this article. 

What sources do you put in a bibliography?

An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list. In some cases, you may need or want to cite conversations or interviews, works of art, visual works such as movies, television shows, or documentaries - these (and many others) can also be included in a reference list.

How to get started writing your bibliography

You will find it easier to prepare your MLA, APA, or Chicago annotated bibliography if you keep track of each book, encyclopedia, journal article, webpage or online source you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft, bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author’s last name, place of publication, web address, publisher, and date of publication for each source.

Haven't started your paper yet and need an outline? These sample essay outlines include a research paper outline from an actual student paper.

How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples)

General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication.

MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.

APA Style: Sibley, D.A. (2020). What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why . Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes: Use periods, not commas, to separate the data in the entry. Use a hanging indent if the entry is longer than one line. For APA style, do not use the full author’s first name.

Websites or webpages:

  MLA Style: The SB Nation Family of Sites. Pension Plan Puppets: A Toronto Maple Leafs Blog, 2022, www.pensionplanpuppets.com. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022.

APA Style: American Heart Association. (2022, April 11). How to keep your dog’s heart healthy. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/04/11/how-to-keep-your-dogs-heart-healthy

Online news article from a newspaper site:

APA Style: Duehren, A. (2022, April 9). Janet Yellen faces challenge to keep pressure on Russia. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/janet-yellen-faces-challenge-to-keep-pressure-on-russia-while-addressing-global-consequences-11650366000

Print journal articles:

MLA Style: Booch, Grady. "Patterns in Object-Oriented Design." IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 6, no. 6, 2006, pp. 31-50.

APA Style: Booch, G. (2006). Patterns in object-oriented design. IEEE Software Engineering, 6(6), 31–50.

Note: It is suggested that you include a DOI and a webpage address when referencing either a printed journal article, and electronic journal article, or an journal article that appears in both formats. 

MLA Style: Gamma, Eric, and Peter A. Coad. “Exceptions to the Unified Modeling Language in Python Patterns.” IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 2, no. 6, 8 Mar. 2006, pp. 190-194. O’Reilly Software Engineering Library, https://doi.org/10.1006/se.20061. Accessed 26 May 2009.

APA Style: Masters, H., Barron, J., & Chanda, L. (2017). Motivational interviewing techniques for adolescent populations in substance abuse counseling. NAADAC Notes, 7(8), 7–13. https://www.naadac.com/notes/adolescent-techniques

ML:A Style: @Grady_Booch. “That’s a bold leap over plain old battery power cars.” Twitter, 13 Mar. 2013, 12:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/Grady_Booch/status/1516379006727188483.

APA Style: Westborough Library [@WestboroughLib]. (2022, April 12). Calling all 3rd through 5th grade kids! Join us for the Epic Writing Showdown! Winner receives a prize! Space is limited so register, today. loom.ly/ypaTG9Q [Tweet; thumbnail link to article]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/WestboroughLib/status/1516373550415896588.

Print magazine articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.

MLA Style: Stiteler, Sharon. "Tracking Red-Breasted Grosbeak Migration." Minnesota Bird Journal, 7 Sept. 2019, pp. 7-11.

APA Style: Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.

Print newspaper articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section, page number(s).

MLA Style: Adelman, Martin. "Augustus Announces Departure from City Manager Post." New York Times, late ed., 15 February 2020, p. A1

APA Style: Adelman, M. (2020, February 15). Augustus announced departure from city manager post. New York Times, A1.

Encyclopedias:

General Format: Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.

MLA Style: “Gorillas.” The Encyclopedia Brittanica. 15th ed. 2010.

APA Style: Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1997.) Gorillas. In The Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th ed., pp. 50-51). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc.

Personal interviews:

General format: Full name (last name first). Personal Interview. (Occupation.) Date of interview.

MLA Style: Smithfield, Joseph. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

APA Style: APA does not require a formal citation for a personal interview. Published interviews from other sources should be cited accordingly.

Films and movies:

General format: Title, Director, Distributor, Year.

MLA Style: Fury. Directed by David Ayer, performances by Brad Pitt, Shia LaBeouf, Jon Bernthal, Sony Pictures, 2014.

APA Style: Ayer, D. (Director). (2014). Fury [Film]. Sony Pictures.

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How To Write a Bibliography (Plus Printable Guide With Examples)

Give credit where credit is due.

Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.

Plus grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . Just fill out the form on this page to get the free guide.

IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.

What is a bibliography?

When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):

• Books and e-books
• Periodicals like magazines or newspapers
• Online articles or websites
• Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.

Bibliography vs. Citations

Citations refer to direct quotations from a text that are woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.

What does a bibliography entry include?

Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order and may include:

• Author/s or creator/s
• Publication date
• Volume and issue numbers
• Publisher and publication city
• Website URL

These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.

What are the different bibliography styles?

In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.

Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.

Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.

APA Style Bibliography and Examples

Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list to only items you cite throughout your work.

How To Write a Bibliography (References) Using APA Style

Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:

• Title your bibliography section “References” and center the title on the top line of the page.
• Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch.
• Include all types of resources in the same list.
• Alphabetize your list by author or creator, last name first.
• Do not spell out the author/creator’s first or middle name—only use their initials.
• If there are multiple authors/creators, use an ampersand (&) before the final author/creator.
• Place the date in parentheses.
• Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, unless the word would otherwise be capitalized (proper names, etc.).
• Italicize the titles of books, periodicals, and videos.
• For websites, include the full site information, including the http:// or https:// at the beginning.

Books and E-Books APA Bibliography Examples

For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books):

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized (unless there’s a proper name/noun) . Publisher. Publisher’s website

• Wynn, S. (2020). City of London at war 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military. https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical APA Bibliography Examples

For journal or magazine articles, use the following format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL

• Bell, A. (2009). Landscapes of fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945. Journal of British Studies (48) 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL

• Blakemore, E. (2022, November 12) Researchers track down two copies of fossil destroyed by the Nazis.  The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic APA Bibliography Examples

For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL

• Wukovits, J. (2023, January 30). A World War II survivor recalls the London Blitz . British Heritage . https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:

Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL

• Growing up in the Second World War . (n.d.). Imperial War Museums. Retrieved May 12, 2023, from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war

When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:

Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL

• War Stories. (2023, January 15). How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? Cities at war: London [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc

For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.

APA Bibliography (Reference List) Example Pages

MLA Style Bibliography Examples

MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.

How To Write a Bibliography (Works Cited and Works Consulted) in MLA Style

For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:

• Start your Works Cited list on a new page. If you include a Works Consulted list, start that on its own new page after the Works Cited section.
• Center the title (Works Cited or Works Consulted) in the middle of the line at the top of the page.
• Align the start of each source to the left margin, and use a hanging indent (1/2 inch) for the following lines of each source.
• Alphabetize your sources using the first word of the citation, usually the author’s last name.
• Include the author’s full name as listed, last name first.
• Capitalize titles using the standard MLA format.
• Leave off the http:// or https:// at the beginning of a URL.

Books and E-Books MLA Bibliography Examples

For books, MLA reference list entries use the following format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military, 2020. www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

Here’s the MLA-style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing:

For magazines and journals:

Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.

• Bell, Amy. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies , vol. 48, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 153–175. www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL

• Blakemore, Erin. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post. 2022, Nov. 12. www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic MLA Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL

• Wukovits, John. 2023. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” January 30,   2023. https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.

• Imperial War Museum. n.d. “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Accessed May 9, 2023. www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war.

Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos:

Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.

• “How did London survive the Blitz during WW2?” Cities at war: London | War stories.” YouTube . Uploaded by War Stories, 15 Jan. 2023. youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing MLA-style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.

MLA Bibliography (Works Cited) Example Pages

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.

How To Write a Bibliography Using The Chicago Manual of Style

Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:

• You may title it “Bibliography” or “References.” Center this title at the top of the page and add two blank lines before the first entry.
• Left-align each entry, with a hanging half-inch indent for subsequent lines of each entry.
• Single-space each entry, with a blank line between entries.
• Include the “http://” or “https://” at the beginning of URLs.

Books and E-Books Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use the following format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2020. Kindle edition.

Periodical Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.

For journal and magazine articles, use this format:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.

• Bell, Amy. 2009. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies, 48 no. 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966.

When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.

• Blakemore, Erin. 2022. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post , November 12, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/.

Electronic Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.

• Wukovits, John. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” British Heritage. 2023, Jan. 30. britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz.

“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Month Day, Year.

• “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Imperial War Museums . www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war. Accessed May 9, 2023.

Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.

• War Stories. “How Did London Survive the Blitz During WW2? | Cities at War: London | War Stories.” YouTube video, 51:25. January 15, 2023. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Example Pages

Get Your Free Printable Bibliography Style Guide

Just fill out the form on this page to grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style .

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How do you format a bibliography in APA Style ® ?

Go to 7th edition guidelines

APA Style ® calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography.

The requirements of a reference list are that all references cited in the text of a paper must be listed alphabetically by first author's last name in the list of references and that all references listed must be cited within the text.

A bibliography, however, typically includes resources in addition to those cited in the text and may include annotated descriptions of the items listed.

In general, the list of references is double-spaced and listed alphabetically by first author's last name. For each reference, the first line is typed flush with the left margin, and any additional lines are indented as a group a few spaces to the right of the left margin (this is called a hanging indent ).

For example:

APA Publications and Communications Board Working Group on Journal Article Reporting Standards. (2009). Reporting standards for research in psychology: Why do we need them? What might they be? American Psychologist, 63 , 839–851. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.9.839

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Mla format guide.

This is the total package when it comes to MLA format. Our easy to read guides come complete with examples and step-by-step instructions to format your full and in-text citations, paper, and works cited in MLA style. There’s even information on annotated bibliographies.

Works Cited | In-Text Citations | Bibliography | Annotated Bibliography | Website | Book | Journal | YouTube | View all MLA Citation Examples

APA Format Guide

Get the facts on citing and writing in APA format with our comprehensive guides. Formatting instructions, in-text citation and reference examples, and sample papers provide you with the tools you need to style your paper in APA.

Reference Page | In-Text Citations | Annotated Bibliography | Website | Books | Journal | YouTube | View all APA citation Examples

Chicago Format Guide

Looking to format your paper in Chicago style and not sure where to start? Our guide provides everything you need! Learn the basics and fundamentals to creating references and footnotes in Chicago format. With numerous examples and visuals, you’ll be citing in Chicago style in no time.

Footnotes | Website | Book | Journal

Harvard Referencing Guide

Learn the requirements to properly reference your paper in Harvard style. The guides we have provide the basics and fundamentals to give credit to the sources used in your work.

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Citing Sources

• Citation Guide for AMA Style This link opens in a new window
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Suggested Online Resources

• APA Style Examples from Saskatchewan Health Authority Various examples of citations in APA format
• APA Style and Grammar Guidelines This resource, from the APA, provides a concise reference guide to using APA 7th edition for citations and writing.
• APA Style Introduction and Sample Resources This introduction to APA Style 7th edition, from the Purdue OWL, provides guidance on citations as well as sample papers, presentations, and posters prepared according to APA Style.
• APA Style Tutorials and Webinars From the APA, this site includes a free tutorial on use of APA 7th edition (Academic Writer Tutorial) as well as recorded webinars to reference.
• In-Text Citation Checklist From the APA, this is a link to a PDF of the 7th edition In-Text Citation Checklist.
• Quick Reference Guide to APA 7th Edition From the APA, this links to a PDF of a quick reference guide to APA 7th edition, providing sample citations for a variety of common sources.
• Student Paper Checklist, APA 7th From the APA, this is a link to the PDF of the Student Paper Checklist in APA 7th format. Includes references to the official publication manual.
• APA Style Information from Waggoner Library Includes information about DOIs, citing course resources, annotated bibliographies, and other resources to help learn about APA Style

Publication Manual

In-Text Citations

General information.

• Can be used for a variety of content including text, figures, boxes, and table
• Organizations can be authors

When using direct quotes

• Surname of author and publication year of work
• Direct quotes of 40+ words require a block quote. Block quotes should be indented 5 spaces rather than utilizing quotation marks.

When paraphrasing

• Place the publication year in parentheses after the author's name. Example: Smith (2020) argues...

When using citing  multiple references  at once

• Separate each author with a semi colon, with surnames in alphabetical order. Example: (Jones, 2019; Smith, 2020)

For more special circumstances regarding authors and in-text citations, consult the Purdue OWL linked below.

• Purdue OWL - In-Text Citations/APA 7th

Reference List

Basic Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date). Title of the work.  Source   where you can retrieve the work . URL or DOI if available

• The word "References" should be bolded and centered at the top of the page in Title Case.
• Place all references in alphabetical order by the last name (surname) of the first author of the work.
• Both an annotated bibliography and a reference list can be included in one document.
• Double space entries in a reference list.

Annotated Bibliography

• All sources that you do not cite, but that inspired, informed, or influenced your work should be listed in an Annotated Bibliography.
• This may include items like suggested readings.
• Entries in a bibliography should be formatted like entries in a reference list.
• Annotated Bibliography looks like a Reference List but contains an annotation after each source cited.
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Citation Styles: A Brief Guide to APA, MLA and Turabian

Sample bibliography: apa.

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• Sample Bibliography: MLA
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• Creating an Annotated Bibliography This link opens in a new window

The basic format for a book citation requires listing the author's name, the title of the book, the publisher's name, and the date of publication. Edited books, when cited in full, will list the editor's name instead of an author’s name. 

Becsey, L., Wachsberger, P., Samuels, S., et al (Directors). (2008). In the valley of Elah . [DVD]. Warner Home Video.

Ginsberg, J. P., Ayers, E., Burriss, L., & Powell, D. A. (2008). Discriminative delay Pavlovian eye-blink conditioning in veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders , 22 , 809-823. https://doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.08.009

Glantz, A. (2009). The war comes home: Washington's battle against America's veterans . University of California Press.

Jakupcak, M., Luterek, J., Hunt, S., Conybeare, D., & McFall, M. (2008). Post-traumatic stress and its relationship to physical health functioning in a sample of Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans seeking post-deployment VA health care. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 196 , 425-428.

Jensen, G. & Wiest, A. A. (2001). War in the age of technology myriad faces of modern armed conflict . New York University Press.

Killgore, W. D. S., Cotting, D. I., Thomas, J. L., Cox, A. L., McGurk, D., Vo, A. H., et al. (2008). Post-combat invincibility: Violent combat experiences are associated with increased risk-taking propensity following deployment. Journal of Psychiatric Research , 42 (13), 1112-1121. https://doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.001

Monson, C. M., Fredman, S. J., & Adair, K. C. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Application to operation enduring and Iraqi freedom veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 64 , 958-971. https://doi:10.1002/jclp.20511

Paulson, D. S., & Krippner, S. (2007). Haunted by combat : Understanding PTSD in war veterans including women, reservists, and those coming back from Iraq . Praeger Security International.

Tanielian, T. L., Jaycox, L., & Rand Corporation. (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery . Rand.

United States. Congress. House Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia. (2007). Working in a war zone: Post traumatic stress disorder in civilians returning from Iraq . G.P.O.

Van Winkle, C. (2009). Soft spots: A marine's memoir of combat and post-traumatic stress disorder . St. Martin's Press.

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A publication of the harvard college writing program.

Harvard Guide to Using Sources 

• The Honor Code
• Sample Bibliography

Below you’ll find a Bibliography adapted from a research paper written by Aishani Aatresh for her Technology, Environment, and Society course.

Bibliography Barnard, Anne, and Grace Ashford. “Can New York Really Get to 100% Clean Energy by 2040?” , November 29, 2021, sec. New York. . Berman, Bradley. “Fuel Cells at Center Stage.” , November 22, 2013, sec. Automobiles. . Boudette, Neal E. “First Came the Hydrogen Cars. Now, the Refilling Stations.” , May 18, 2017, sec. Automobiles. . Coen, Deborah R. “Big Is a Thing of the Past: Climate Change and Methodology in the History of Ideas.” 77, no. 2 (2016): 305–21. . The White House. “FACT SHEET: President Biden Announces Steps to Drive American Leadership Forward on Clean Cars and Trucks,” August 5, 2021. . Jasanoff, Sheila. “A New Climate for Society.” 27, no. 2–3 (March 2010): 233–53. . Jasanoff, Sheila, and Sang-Hyun Kim. “Containing the Atom: Sociotechnical Imaginaries and Nuclear Power in the United States and South Korea.” 47, no. 2 (2009): 119–46. Motavalli, Jim. “Cheap Natural Gas Prompts Energy Department to Soften Its Line on Fuel Cells.” (blog), May 29, 2012. . Tabuchi, Hiroko. “Toyota Led on Clean Cars. Now Critics Say It Works to Delay Them.” , July 25, 2021, sec. Climate. .

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Annotated Bibliography Samples

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life . Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America . Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess . London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

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Citing Your Sources

• About This Guide
• Journals, Articles and Dissertations
• Biographical Sources
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• Organizations and Associations

Chicago Style

American psychological association (apa) style manuals, modern language association (mla) style manuals, selected web guides.

Proper citation is an essential aspect of scholarship. Citing properly allows your reader or audience to locate the materials you have used. Most importantly, citations give credit to the authors of quoted or consulted information. Failure to acknowledge sources of information properly may constitute plagiarism.  For an explicit definition of plagiarism, see the  Boston University Academic Conduct Code .

For detailed instructions on how to cite within the text of your paper, please consult a style manual listed below. Please also note: some of the resources below do not cover every possibility you might encounter when trying to cite your sources. For this reason, it is suggested that you consult a style manual to create your bibliography.

• Online Resources
• Sample Citations
• Reference Books
• Chicago Manual of Style Online This link opens in a new window Note: Full text online includes 16th and 17th editions.
• Citation Quick Guide - A Chicago Style Q&A and a Tools section featuring sample forms, letters and style sheets. - Discover the difference between Notes & Bibliography style and Author/Date style.
• Citation Guide (HBS) This excellent guide in .PDF from the Harvard Business School covers citation within text as well as how to do a bibliography using Chicago style.

1. Lynda Gratton, The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014),  67-71.

Shortened note:

10. Gratton, The Key , 67-71.

Bibliography entry:

Gratton, Lynda. The Key: How How Corporations Succeed by Solving the Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014.

     13. Peter Weill and Stephanie L. Woerner, What's Your Digital Business Model?: Six Questions to Help You Build the Next-Generation Enterprise (Harvard Business Review Press, 2018), 21-23, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.

Shortened note :

15. Weill and Woerner, What's Your Digital Business? , 21-23, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.

Weill, Peter and Stephanie L. Woerrner. What's Your Digital Business?: Six Questions to Help You Build the Next-Generation

       Enterprise . Harvard Business Review Press 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central ,

       https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.

   

Journal Article from a database

     19. Sam son Nambei Asoba and Nteboheng Patricia Mefi , "Functional Strategies for Small Businesses During Crisis Situations,"  Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, n o. 3 (2021): 2-3. https://ezproxy.bu.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fscholarly-journals%2Ffunctional-strategies-small-businesses-during%2Fdocview%2F2565213471%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D9676.

      27. Asoba and Mefi, "Functional Stategies," Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, 2-3. https://ezproxy.bu.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fscholarly-journals%2Ffunctional-strategies-small-businesses-during%2Fdocview%2F2565213471%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D9676

Asoba, Samson Nambei and Nteboheng Patricia Mefi. "Functional Strategies for Small Businesses During Crisis

       Situations." Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, no. 3 (2021): 1-7. [place url here].

     

Electronic Databases (BU Databases)

Mergent Online (Electronic database)

      25. Thomas Key, "Comprehensive Technical and Fundamental Analysis for AAPL," Mergent Online, Stock Trader's Daily (via Investext), Sept. 15, 2021, accessed 9-17-21, [place url here].

Key, Thomas. "Comprehensive Technical and Fundamental Analysis for AAPL." Mergent Online.

      Stock Trader's Daily (via Investext). Sept. 15, 2021, accessed 9-17-21, [place url here].

MarketLine Company Profile via Business Source Complete (Electronic database)

     31 . “Company Profile: Apple Inc., “Company Profile: Apple Inc.,” MarketLine Report via Business Source Complete, accessed October 17, 2014, [place url here].

“Company Profile: Apple Inc., 19 September 2014.” MarketLine Report via Business Source Complete.

      Accessed October 17, 2014. [place url here].

• APA Style.Style and Grammar Guidelines

APA Sample Citations: Note- initially no indent and then following lines indented.

Print Source:

Book (print):.

Gratton, L. (2014).  The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education .

Bloomberg (Electronic Database):

Bloomberg L.P. (2014).  Historical Price Line Chart for Apple, Inc. 11/1/03 to 11/1/04 . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Bloomberg L.P.

MarketLine Company Profile via Business Source Complete:

MarketLine Report. (2014, September 19).  Company Profile: Apple Inc . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Business Source Complete database.

Mergent Online (SEC/EDGAR filing in BU database):

Apple, Inc. (2013, September 28).  Form 10-K . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Mergent Online database.

Mintel Reports (Electronic Database):

Mintel. (2014, October).  Mobile Apps – US – October 2014 . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Mintel Reports database.

SRDS online (Electronic Database)

SRDS Media Solutions. (n.d.).  U.S. News & World Report Profile . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from SRDS Media Solutions database.

University Reporter  (Electronic Database):

University Reporter . (2014, Spring).  2014 Spring Reporter Apparel/Accessories . Retrieved February 23, 2016 from  University Reporter  database.

Articles from a BU Database:

Abi/inform global.

Overman, S. (2014). The Culture of Conscience.  Leadership Excellence ,  31 (10) , 49-51.

Online Sources:

Annual report available online:.

Apple Inc.(2013).   Apple, Inc. Form 10-K for the Fiscal Year Ended September 28, 2013 . Retrieved from http://investor.apple.com/financials.cfm.

• Ask the MLA The FAQ’s answer recurring questions about the use of this style.

MLA Sample Citations: Note- initially no indent and then following lines indented.

Gratton, Lynda.  The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014. Print.

Electronic Databases (BU Databases):

Bloomberg (electronic database): bloomberg l.p..

Bloomberg L.P. “ Historical Price Line Chart for Apple, Inc. 11/1/03 to 11/1/04."   Bloomberg L.P. ,2014. Web. 17 October 2014.

MarketLine Report. “ Company Profile: Apple Inc. ”  Business Source Complete database,  19 September 2014. Web. 17 October 2014.

Apple, Inc. “ Form 10-K,"   Mergent Online database . 28 September 2013. Web.  17 October 2014.

Mintel (Electronic Database):

Mintel. “ Mobile Apps – US ."   Mintel database,  October 2014. Web.  17 October 2014.

SRDS Online (Electronic Database):

SRDS Media Solutions. “U.S. News & World Report Profile."  SRDS Media Solutions, n.d. Web. 17 October 2014.

University Reporter .  2014 Spring Reporter Apparel/Accessories . Web. February 23, 2016.

Article from a BU database

Overman, Steven. “The Culture of Conscience."  Leadership Excellence  31.10 (2014): 49-51. ABI-Inform Complete. Web.  17 October 2014.

Online Sources

Apple Inc.  Apple, Inc. Form 10-K for the Fiscal Year Ended September 28, 2013 . Apple Inc., 28 September 2013. Web. 17 October 2014.

• Citing Your Sources This Boston University research guide offers links to information about citing sources.
• Citing Sources Within Your Paper (Duke University) Duke University is responsible for this well-organized site about citing in the body of your text.
• Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University provides examples of APA, MLA and Chicago Style citations as well as formatting instructions from the style manuals.

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Bibliography Examples for Students

You’ve finished writing your essay. Now, it’s time to make an alphabetized list of all the books, periodicals and websites you used. Some writing styles call this list the bibliography. Since a bibliography example can speak louder than words, get a sample of bibliographies in MLA, APA and Chicago styles. Then, learn about the different types of bibliographies available that you may need to use.

Bibliography Examples In MLA, APA and Chicago

When it comes to examples of bibliographies, it can get confusing. This is because the word “bibliography” can have a double meaning when it comes to writing styles.

“Bibliography” can be a catch-all word to mean all source lists in all writing styles. It is also the title of the  Chicago/Turabian end citation. However,    MLA style  and APA style  don’t technically have bibliographies; instead, they have reference lists. The difference breaks down like this:

• A bibliography lists all the references used to create a piece of writing. This includes everything you used in the creation of the work, even if you didn’t cite it in the body of the writing itself. This can include, but isn’t limited to, background sources.
• A reference list only contains the sources cited directly in the body of the paper or essay. These are actual quotes and ideas that were used by other writers or materials.

Now that you know the terminology, it’s time to explore a sample of bibliographies, reference lists and works cited lists.

MLA Works Cited Example

Designed for high school and college students,  MLA formatting makes citing websites, advertisements, blogs, books, and other sources easy for students. It uses an author-page in-text citation style and a works cited page. Use this MLA sample of a bibliography to see how to create a works cited page.

APA Reference List Example

When you are creating a technical paper in psychology, biology or chemistry, you’ll use  APA style . The American Psychological Association (APA) designed this style for formatting citations for journals, books, technical manuals and other large technical sources. In the text, you’ll use author-date style citations.

The source list at the end of the paper is called References. Since the author and date are typically one of the first things listed in the reference sheet, it’s easy to find citations on the reference list. Check out the APA bibliography example to see the correct formatting.

Chicago or Turabian Bibliography Example

Turabian is another format students may use at the college, and sometimes, high school level. It is the student version of the Chicago Manual of Style . This professional style can use an author-date citation style with a reference page , or it can use notes and a bibliography . The type that you use is dependent on you or your instructor.

Turabian is a diverse style that can work well for fiction and nonfiction sources. You might use it in arts, history, philosophy, and religion, among other subjects. Set up your bibliography with ease by checking out the  Chicago style example of a bibliography in author-date style here.

Annotated Bibliography Example

To round out this sample of bibliographies, there’s one more type of reference list you may need to create as part of your studies.

In addition to the end citation bibliography, you can create an annotated bibliography. This can be an  MLA annotated bibliography or  you may opt for Chicago style annotation. An annotated bibliography adds a summative (informative) or evaluative annotation for each bibliography entry, providing more information for the reader about the sources you used to write your paper.

Perfect Bibliography Formatting

Whenever you’re in doubt, refer back to this sample of bibliography examples to ensure your formatting is perfect, regardless of the citation style you’re following for your paper. Remember that you should focus on  finding credible sources , as not all sources of information are equally reliable and accurate. 

Creating a School Project in APA Style

Preparing to Write MLA College Papers

Entries to Include in Chicago/Turabian Author-Date Style

FAQ Bibliography Examples for Students

How do you write a bibliography for a school project.

When writing a bibliography for a school project, you'll need to know the publication, author, corporation, title, publication date, publication company, volume, and URL to compose your citations. Depending on the manual of style you're using, the way you create your citations varies. For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA) has a specific way they set up their bibliography that is different from the American Psychological Association (APA). However, with all styles, your citations are listed on your bibliography in alphabetical order.

How do you write a bibliography example?

The way you would write a bibliography example varies based on the style guide you are using. For example, in MLA 8, the citation for the book "The Hunger Games" looks like: Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games. Scholastic, 2012. However, in APA 7, the citation for "The Hunger Games" looks like: Collins, S. (2012). The hunger games. Scholastic.

What does a bibliography look like?

Depending on the style guide you are using, bibliographies can look different. In general, bibliographies have the page number, title, and all the works you used in alphabetical order. Annotated bibliographies also include a short summary of the text.

How do you write a bibliography for a website?

To create a citation of a website on a bibliography, you need the name of the article, author (if available), published or posted date, and URL or DOI. For example, this page in MLA style is cited as: Betts, Jennifer. “Bibliography Examples for Students.” Bibliography.com, 9 Jan. 2019, https://www.bibliography.com/how-to/bibliography-examples-for-students/.

What is a bibliography page example?

A bibliography page example provides you with an overview of what bibliographies should look like in MLA, APA, and Chicago format. Bibliographies are found at the end of a paper and include an alphabetical list of the sources used to compose your research, statements, arguments, etc.

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How to Cite a PDF

How to find credible sources for school essays, bibliography rules and guidelines, how to write a bibliography for a school project.

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Citation Styles

• Chicago/Turabian

The American Psychological Association (APA) Style is often used in the Social Sciences (especially Psychology), Nursing, Business, and Education. 

APA uses parenthetical, in-text citations.

• APA Style Guidelines The American Psychological Association offers detailed guides that cover every aspect of writing a paper in APA Style.
• APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition) - Purdue OWL Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab’s guide to using the APA Style citation format.

Chicago Style is often used in Religion, Anthropology, History, and Business. Turabian Style is a simplified version of Chicago Style. While the Chicago Style is directed toward professional scholars and publishers, the Turabian Style is designed for high school and college students who are writing papers, theses, and dissertations.

Chicago and Turabian Styles come in 2 types: Notes (footnote or endnote) in-text citation style, and Author-Date parenthetical style.

• Turabian - A Manual for Writers "[Turabian] is the gold standard for college and graduate students in virtually all academic areas. An introduction to Chicago-style formatting and citation generation, the manual aids students in clear writing, citing, and research practice. At the heart of Turabian is the idea that, no matter the format, the foundations of good research remain the same: to do it carefully, present it clearly and accurately, and follow academic standards for citation, style, and format."
• The Chicago Manual of Style Online "The Chicago Manual of Style Online is the venerable, time-tested guide to style, usage, and grammar in an accessible online format. It is the indispensable reference for writers, editors, proofreaders, indexers, copywriters, designers, and publishers, informing the editorial canon with sound, definitive advice."
• Chicago Manual of Style (17th Edition) - Purdue OWL Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab’s guide to using the Chicago Style citation format.

The Modern Language Association (MLA) Style is used in Literature, Communication, and many other Arts & Humanities disciplines.

MLA Style uses parenthetical in-text citations.

• MLA Style Center Writing Resources from the Modern Language Association. This MLA-authorized website offers quick references for MLA Style, tips on formatting a research paper, sample research papers, and many other resources.
• MLA General Format Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab’s guide to using the MLA Style citation format.

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is primarily used for research papers in the field of Chemistry.

ACS uses a system of parenthetical, in-text citations, as well as a reference list.

• ACS Style Quick Guide A quick reference guide, showing examples of citations created for a variety of source types.
• ASA Formatting and Style Guide - Purdue OWL Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab’s guide to using the ASA Style citation format.
• Quick Tips for ASA Style A "Quick Tips" sheet for citing and referencing your sources in ASA Style, produced by the American Sociological Association

Zotero is a free citation management software that allows you to collect, organize, cite, and share the sources that you come across in your research. It can be used as a browser add-on (Firefox, Chrome, Edge, or Safari), a desktop application (Windows, Mac, Linux, or iOS), or a plugin (Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and more).

• Zotero Register for an account to begin using your personal research assistant!
• Zotero Quick Start Guide This guide created by Zotero will help you get started and become comfortable with using the software.
• Zotero Guide This guide shows Drew users how to install, set up, and use Zotero.

Endnote Online

Endnote Online is a web-based version of the classic citation manager software Endnote. It allows you to collect, track, and manage the citations for articles you're using for papers or research, and to output those citations in any citation style. It helps manage your bibliographic needs, including organizing sources and citations by project, sharing citations for group work, and "citing while you write" (inserting citations into papers while writing).

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Free MLA Citation Generator

Generate accurate citations in MLA format automatically, with MyBib!

😕 What is an MLA Citation Generator?

An MLA citation generator is a software tool designed to automatically create academic citations in the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation format. The generator will take information such as document titles, author, and URLs as in input, and output fully formatted citations that can be inserted into the Works Cited page of an MLA-compliant academic paper.

The citations on a Works Cited page show the external sources that were used to write the main body of the academic paper, either directly as references and quotes, or indirectly as ideas.

👩‍🎓 Who uses an MLA Citation Generator?

MLA style is most often used by middle school and high school students in preparation for transition to college and further education. Ironically, MLA style is not actually used all that often beyond middle and high school, with APA (American Psychological Association) style being the favored style at colleges across the country.

It is also important at this level to learn why it's critical to cite sources, not just how to cite them.

🙌 Why should I use a Citation Generator?

Writing citations manually is time consuming and error prone. Automating this process with a citation generator is easy, straightforward, and gives accurate results. It's also easier to keep citations organized and in the correct order.

The Works Cited page contributes to the overall grade of a paper, so it is important to produce accurately formatted citations that follow the guidelines in the official MLA Handbook .

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's MLA Citation Generator?

It's super easy to create MLA style citations with our MLA Citation Generator. Scroll back up to the generator at the top of the page and select the type of source you're citing. Books, journal articles, and webpages are all examples of the types of sources our generator can cite automatically. Then either search for the source, or enter the details manually in the citation form.

The generator will produce a formatted MLA citation that can be copied and pasted directly into your document, or saved to MyBib as part of your overall Works Cited page (which can be downloaded fully later!).

MyBib supports the following for MLA style:

⚙️ Styles	MLA 8 & MLA 9
📚 Sources	Websites, books, journals, newspapers
🔎 Autocite	Yes
📥 Download to	Microsoft Word, Google Docs

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

Practical Guide to Qualitative Research Paper Formats

This is part of our Essential Guide to Coding Qualitative Data | Start a Free Trial of Delve | Take Our Free Online Qualitative Data Analysis Course

Formatting a qualitative research paper can be intimidating, especially if you're just encountering concepts like APA, MLA, IMRAD, or specific dissertation chapters for the first time. 

Whether you’re a first-time researcher or seeking to refine your skills, this guide helps you navigate the many decisions of structuring and formatting your qualitative paper. 

We’ll dive into citation styles, structural formats, and other formatting details, providing an overview and tips for creating effective and efficient qualitative research papers.

What is a Style Guide for Qualitative Research?

You’re here because you know it is important to style your research paper correctly. Style guides like APA, MLA, and Chicago have their own rules for citations, reference lists, page layout, margins, capitalization, numbers, and dates. These rules help keep your paper consistent and clear.

Key Differences of Style Guides:

In-text citations: How you reference sources within the text.

Reference lists: The format for listing your sources at the end of your paper.

Formatting: Page layout, margins, font, spacing, and headings.

Capitalization: Rules for capitalizing titles, headings, and names.

Numbers: When to use numerals or spell out numbers.

Dates: How to format dates.

Table: Differences in Style Guides

Aspect	APA (American Psychological Association)	MLA (Modern Language Association)	Chicago Manual of Style
Primary Use	Social Sciences (e.g., Psychology, Sociology, Education)	Humanities (e.g., Literature, Arts, Cultural Studies)	History and some Social Sciences
In-text Citations	(Author, Year)	(Author Page)	Footnotes/Endnotes: (First citation: Full details, Subsequent: Shortened)
Reference List	Author: Last name, First initial(s). Year of publication: In parentheses. Title: Italicized. Institution: Publisher or University.	Author: Last name, First name. Title: Italicized. Institution: Publisher or University. Year of publication: At the end.	Author: Last name, First name. Title: Italicized. Institution: Publisher or University. Year of publication: At the end.
Formatting	Title page, Abstract, Headings, Reference list	No title page, Works Cited page	Title page, Bibliography, Footnotes/Endnotes
Capitalization	Sentence case for titles (capitalize only the first word and proper nouns)	Title case for titles (capitalize principal words)	Sentence case or Title case depending on the context
Numbers	Spell out numbers less than 10	Spell out numbers that can be written in one or two words	Spell out numbers under 100
Dates	Month day, year (e.g., April 7, 2023)	Day month year (e.g., 7 April 2023)	Month day, year (e.g., April 7, 2023)

Overview of Style Guides for Formatting

Let's see how these three style guides work using a real dissertation as an example. We'll look at Steven A. Baker's paper, A Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army , which was done using Delve qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) .

APA (American Psychological Association)

The APA style , established by the American Psychological Association , is widely used in the social sciences. It focuses on clarity, precision, and uniformity. APA includes specific guidelines for formatting your paper, including the title page, abstract, headings, and reference list. 

HOW TO USE APA

In-text citations : (Author, Year)

Example : (Baker, 2023)

Reference list : A comprehensive list of all sources cited, formatted with hanging indents.

Author: Last name, First initial(s).

Year of publication: In parentheses.

Title: Italicized.

Institution: Publisher or University

Baker, S. A. (2023). A Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army . Colorado Technical University.

Last Name, First Initial (Year Published). Title of the Book . Publisher.

Last Name, First Initial (Year Published). Title of the Article . Journal Name , Journal Volume, pp.#-pp.#. https://doi.org/10.1234/abc123

ADDITIONAL APA STYLING SUGGESTIONS

Aspect	Details
Page Layout, Margins, Font, Spacing, and Headings	Use Times New Roman, 12-point font. Double-space throughout the paper. Set margins to one inch on all sides. Include a running head on every page with the page number in the upper right corner.
Capitalization	Use title case for major words in titles (e.g., ). Use lowercase for articles (a, an, the) unless they are the first word of the title.
Numbers	Generally, spell out numbers one through nine and use numerals for 10 and above. Exceptions for statistical data, measurements, and other specific contexts.
Dates	Use the month-day-year format (e.g., January 1, 2024).

WHY WE USE APA STYLE

APA's structured approach helps keep your paper organized and easy to read. By highlighting the date of publication, it shows how current your sources are, which is useful in fields relying on up-to-date research. This style also offers clear guidelines for formatting and citations, making it easier to maintain consistency throughout your work.

COMMON DISCIPLINES FOR APA

Social Sciences

MLA (Modern Language Association)

The MLA style , created by the Modern Language Association , is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and cultural studies. It emphasizes the author’s name and page number for in-text citations.

HOW TO USE MLA

In-text citations : (Author Page)

Example : "I chose Delve because this CAQDAS tool allowed me to significantly truncate the period it would typically take to transcribe and manually code each participant’s interview data. (Baker 71-72)."

Works Cited : A detailed list of all sources cited, formatted with a focus on authorship and publication details.

Author: Last name, First name.

Institution: Publisher or University.

Year of publication: At the end.

Baker, Steven A. A Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army . Colorado Technical University, 2023.

Last Name, First Name, and Last Name, First Name. "Title of the Article." Journal Name , vol. #, no. #, Year Published, pp. #-#.

Last Name, First Name. Title of the Book . Publisher, Year Published.

ADDITIONAL MLA STYLING SUGGESTIONS

Aspect	Details
Page Layout, Margins, Font, Spacing, and Headings	Use Times New Roman, 12-point font. Double-space throughout the paper. Set margins to one inch on all sides. Include a header with your last name and page number in the upper right corner.
Capitalization	Use title case for major words in titles (e.g., ). Use lowercase for articles (a, an, the) unless they are the first word of the title.
Numbers	Spell out numbers that can be written in one or two words (e.g., one, thirty-six). Use numerals for numbers that require more than two words (e.g., 247).
Dates	Use the day-month-year format (e.g., 1 January 2024).

WHY WE USE MLA STYLE

Focusing on authorship, MLA is particularly useful for disciplines that prioritize interpreting texts and cultural artifacts. Humanities research, for instance, benefits from using MLA because it requires understanding the context and contributions of different authors. Its simple format makes it easy to track sources, which is important for qualitative analysis.

COMMON DISCIPLINES FOR MLA

Cultural Studies

Chicago Style

The Chicago Manual of Style, published by the University of Chicago Press , offers two documentation systems: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Due to its flexibility and thoroughness, this style is commonly used in history and some social sciences.

HOW TO USE CHICAGO STYLE

Footnotes/Endnotes:

Format: Full details at the first citation, shortened for subsequent ones.

Example (First citation): Steven A. Baker, A Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army (Colorado Technical University, 2023), 45.

Example (Subsequent citation): Baker, E-Leadership , 45.

Bibliography:

ADDITIONAL CHICAGO STYLE SUGGESTIONS

Aspect	Details
Page Layout, Margins, Font, Spacing, and Headings	Use Times New Roman, 12-point font. Double-space throughout the paper. Set margins to one inch on all sides. Include a page number in the upper right corner or bottom center of each page.
Capitalization	Use title case for major words in titles (e.g., ). Use lowercase for articles (a, an, the) unless they are the first word of the title.
Numbers	Spell out numbers zero through one hundred. Use numerals for larger numbers and in specific contexts like statistical data.
Dates	Use the month-day-year format (e.g., January 1, 2024).

WHY WE USE CHICAGO

Chicago style's flexibility and detailed citation approach make it ideal for deep historical research with complex source material. Using footnotes or endnotes offers a clean narrative flow, which is suited for lengthy historical papers. It allows a wide range of sources, including archival documents and unpublished materials, making it versatile for various types of research.

Table: The Three Common Bibliographic Styles

Just as there are different citation styles, there are also various structural formats for organizing your research paper. Different disciplines, types of research, and even professors may require specific ways of presenting your findings. Understanding these differences is important because different formatting techniques work better in certain situations.

For example, qualitative research often uses themes and patterns to structure results, while quantitative research typically follows a more rigid, statistical format. Knowing which structural format to use in either situation helps keep your research paper organized and easier to grasp.

Here are some common structures used in research papers, applicable to both studies, and why you might be asked to use one over another:

The IMRAD format is widely used in scientific and medical research papers. It provides a clear, logical structure that makes it easy for readers to follow your research process and findings.

: Presents the research question and context.

: Describes the research design and methodology.

: Reports the findings of the study.

: Interprets the results and discusses their implications.

This format's structured approach ensures that each aspect of your research is presented, making it easier for readers to understand and evaluate your work. It also facilitates systematically presenting your research, which is particularly valuable in scientific studies.

The ICMJE format is specific to medical and health research, providing guidelines that ensure ethical reporting and clear research presentation.

: Similar to IMRAD but with additional focus on ethical considerations and conflicts of interest.

If you're conducting medical research, this format ensures your paper meets the rigorous standards for publication in medical journals. It also emphasizes transparency and ethical considerations, which are paramount in medical research.

PEEL is a writing strategy often used in essays and reports to ensure well-structured paragraphs and clear arguments.

oint: The main idea of the paragraph.

vidence: Supporting data or quotes.

xplanation: Analysis of the evidence.

ink: Connection to the thesis or next paragraph.

This strategy helps you develop coherent and persuasive arguments, making it easier for readers to follow your logic. It's particularly useful in structuring arguments and ensuring that each paragraph contributes to your thesis.

Narrative formats are used to tell a story or present case studies, often with rich, descriptive detail.

: Flexible, focusing on storytelling and contextual analysis.

This format allows for a more fluid and engaging presentation of qualitative data, making it ideal for case studies and . It also enables a deeper exploration of the context and experiences related to your research topic.

Element	Chicago	MLA	APA
In-text citations	(Author Last Name Year)	Author Last Name (Year)	Author Last Name (Year)
Reference Lists	Author Last Name, First Name. . Publisher, Year Published.	Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." , Volume Number, Issue Number (Year), Page Numbers.

Format	Description	Why Use It
IMRAD	Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.	Provides a clear, logical structure, ideal for scientific and medical research papers.
ICMJE	Similar to IMRAD, with additional focus on ethical considerations and conflicts of interest.	Ensures rigorous standards for medical research and emphasizes transparency and ethical considerations.
PEEL	Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link.	Helps develop coherent and persuasive arguments, making it easier for readers to follow your logic.
Narrative	Flexible structure, focusing on storytelling and contextual analysis.	Ideal for case studies and ethnographic research, allowing for a deeper exploration of context and experiences.

Breakdown of Dissertation Chapters

A dissertation typically consists of five core chapters, each serving a distinct purpose. This structure helps organize your research and present your findings clearly and systematically. Let's break down these chapters using examples from real dissertations that used Delve qualitative data analysis software .

Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction chapter sets the stage for the rest of your dissertation. It introduces your research topic, outlines the problem, and states the research objectives of the entire qualitative research paper. This chapter provides the background information needed to understand the context of your study and explains why your research matters.

Example Excerpts: In A Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army by Steven A. Baker, the introduction outlines the problem of integrating e-leadership into traditional Army leadership frameworks. It sets the stage by explaining the significance of leadership development in the digital age: 

"Excellent communication skills are critical for influential leaders and successful organizations...the nascent leadership theory that is helping to explain how leaders must adapt their knowledge, skills, and abilities to motivate followers when mediated by technology effectively is termed electronic or 'e' leadership" (p. 1).

💡 CHAPTER 1 TIPS

Clearly state your research question, objectives, and why the study is important.

Ensure that the introduction is engaging and sets the context for your research.

Briefly touch on the structure of your dissertation to guide the reader.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The literature review chapter reviews existing research related to your topic. It identifies gaps in the literature and establishes a theoretical framework for your study. This chapter demonstrates your understanding of the research area and how your work will contribute to the field.

Example Excerpt: In Exploring Physician Assistant Students' Perceptions of Stress and Help-Seeking Behavior by Kayla Cetrone, the literature review discusses existing studies on stress in medical education, highlighting gaps and establishing a framework for understanding PA students' experiences: 

"Few studies have explored student perceptions of stress in PA education (Hernandez et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2020; O'Brien et al., 2012). Additionally, researchers have given little attention to the structure and culture of PA education as it relates to students' health. Limited existing research and the need for programs to develop strategies to support students to address their concerns provide the basis for this study” (p. 19-20).

💡 CHAPTER 2 TIPS

Use a systematic approach to search for literature.

Evaluate sources critically and synthesize information to highlight trends, gaps, and key theories.

Make sure to link your review to your research questions and objectives.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Chapter 3 is the methodology chapter. It describes your research design, methods, and procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Chapter 3 should be detailed and transparent, allowing others to replicate your study if needed.

Example Excerpt: In Perceived Problems and Advantages of Sexual and Reproductive Health Services Among Adolescents by Joseph Charles Ianaconi III, he sets the stage for his decision to use a grounded theory approach to the study:

“This study followed a grounded theory approach. Grounded theory studies are appropriate when there are “no existing theories regarding the process that are of interest to the researchers; there is a theory that exists, but they have been created for a [different] group of people that the researchers are interested in … Chapter Three highlights the methodology and approach used in this grounded theory study. The research in Chapter Two supports the research and approach presented in Chapter Three” (p.  65).

💡 CHAPTER 3 TIPS

Clearly explain the rationale behind your chosen methods.

Detail your data collection process and analysis techniques, and justify why these methods are appropriate for your research questions.

Address any limitations and ethical considerations.

Chapter 4: Results (or Findings)

Chapter 4 is where you present your research findings without any analysis. You might be wondering how to organize and display these findings effectively. If you're struggling with this process, use themes and patterns to structure your data. Include direct quotes to provide evidence and compare findings across different disciplines. Clearly present your data to support your research question and objectives, but avoid any analysis or interpretation—save that for the "Discussion" chapter.

Example Excerpt: In Parent Perspectives for Elementary Instrumental Music Participation by Scott Wayne McGowan, he uses direct quotes from parents about their challenges and strategies to provide valuable insights (that require no analysis on his own part). For instance, in this section from the Chapter Four write up:

“Seven parents mentioned social benefits in their interviews, making it another common theme. Interestingly, the parent-only group and the parent/ administrator mentioned them, but none of the parent/teachers did. PA (participant) 1 stated, “I think the biggest benefits...is a strong supportive friend network.” P7 said, “The friendships, I think, are, you know, very solid in Band” (pg. 98).

💡 CHAPTER 4 TIPS

Transition from Chapter 3 by summarizing how your methods led to your results.

Organize your data using headings and subheadings to highlight themes and patterns in a logical way and include quotes and data excerpts to illustrate your points.

Ensure your presentation is clear and concise, focusing solely on reporting your findings without analysis. That’s next.

Zooming In: How to Write Chapter 4 Qualitative Research Findings

Chapter 4 is challenging because it requires a precise and objective presentation of qualitative data. The hard part is organizing all your data clearly and logically without actually interpreting it. But this chapter is key as it forms the foundation for your analysis and discussion in the next chapter. Here’s what to keep in mind as you work through this section:

Categorize Your Data: Group your data into categories or themes that emerged during your research. This helps organize your findings logically and makes it easier for readers to follow your narrative.

Visual Aids: Use charts, tables, and diagrams to represent your data visually. Visual aids can make complex data more understandable and highlight key points effectively.

Direct Quotes: Including direct quotes from your participants adds authenticity to your findings. Make sure these quotes are relevant and illustrate the themes you are discussing.

Comparative Analysis: If possible, compare your findings across different contexts or groups. This will give you deeper insights and highlight patterns or issues in your data.

Triangulation: Use multiple sources or types of data to corroborate your findings. Triangulation strengthens the credibility of your research and provides a more comprehensive view of your study area. 

🔁 Chapter 4 Recap:

Begin with a brief summary of how your methodology led to these findings. This sets the context for your readers.

Break down your Chapter 4 findings into sections with clear subheadings. This improves readability and helps organize your data logically.

Focus on presenting the data objectively without interpretation. Your goal here is to report what you found, not what you think it means—that comes in the next chapter.

Prioritize simplicity and clarity in your presentation. Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences to make your findings accessible to a broad audience.

Prepare to discuss! As you present your findings, remember how they will lead into your discussion. Set the stage for your analysis and interpretation in Chapter 5.

Chapter 5: Discussion (or Conclusion)

In the discussion chapter, you interpret the findings, discuss their implications, and suggest areas for future research. This chapter connects your results to the literature review and research question, discussing the broader implications of your work. Highlight the significance of your findings, compare them with existing literature, and propose future research directions.

Example Excerpt: In The Influence of Homeland Culture on First-Generation Immigrants Caring for Children with Autism by Paula Frances Duggins, the discussion chapter interprets the data, examining how cultural background affects caregiving practices:

"Results further reveal important information that holds relevance in parents’ cross-cultural interactions with U.S. healthcare and educational professionals. For example, the absence of prior homeland knowledge of the concepts of autism and disability led to confusion about their children’s diagnosis, further exacerbated by a lack of knowledge about how to access and navigate the U.S. systems to find assistance for their children’s needs" (pg. 218).

Key Findings, Implications, and Recommendations:

If you read the full study, you will notice that Chapter 5 interprets the findings and examines how cultural background affects caregiving practices. Key findings include challenges parents face in navigating U.S. systems, the need for culturally competent partnerships, and the role of social support from homeland communities. 

💡 CHAPTER 5 TIPS

Transitioning from Chapter 4 to Chapter 5 involves moving from presenting your results to interpreting them.

Discuss how your findings answer your research questions, their significance, and how they fit into the existing body of knowledge.

Identify any limitations in your study and suggest areas for further research.

Choosing the Right Format for Your Qualitative Research Paper

If you're a student writing a dissertation or meeting specific citation style requirements from your instructor, you're likely looking for specific guidance. Sometimes, you'll have the flexibility to decide which format works best for your research. If that’s you, here are a few things to consider:

Key Considerations

Discipline or Field : As mentioned earlier, certain citation styles are preferred in specific fields. For example, APA is commonly used in social sciences, MLA in humanities, and Chicago in history and some social sciences.

Instructor’s Requirements : Always follow the specific guidelines provided by your instructor or institution, as they may have preferences for formatting and citation styles.

Research Type : The nature of your qualitative research may influence the best structure for presenting your findings. For example, narrative analysis research might be better suited to a format different from grounded theory .

Journal Requirements : If you plan to publish your research, check the submission guidelines of your target journal, as they often specify a required citation style.

Practical Tips

Align with Objectives : Use this article to choose a format that aligns with your research objectives and makes your paper easy to understand and follow.

Consistency : To maintain a professional and polished appearance, ensure consistency in citations and references throughout your paper. If you’re working in a team, QDA coding tools like Delve’s web-based software help keep everyone on the same page.

Examples : Look at published research papers in your field to see how they are structured and which citation styles are commonly used.

Remember that while some elements are fixed, you might have some flexibility in presenting your findings, especially in qualitative research. 

Choosing the right format can make a remarkable difference in how well your research lands with readers and instructors, so make sure to pick the one that suits your specific needs.

Qualitative analysis doesn't have to be overwhelming.

Take delve's free online course. → get started here..

How to Conduct a Literature Review for Your Qualitative Research

Doing a thorough literature review is essential for any qualitative research paper. It helps you understand the existing research landscape, identify gaps, and establish a framework for your study. Here’s a simple guide with a few tools that can help streamline the process:

Define Your Research Question: Clearly articulate what you want to investigate. This will guide your search for relevant literature.

Search for Relevant Literature: Use academic databases, journals, and libraries to find sources related to your topic. Tools like Zotero and Mendeley are excellent for efficiently managing and organizing your sources.

Evaluate and Synthesize Findings: Critically assess the quality and relevance of the literature. Look for patterns, themes, and major findings related to your research question. Zotero and EndNote can help you keep track of your evaluations and notes.

Identify Research Gaps: Determine where the current research falls short or where new insights are needed. This will help justify the need for your study.

Establish a Theoretical Framework: Use the literature to build a theoretical foundation for your research. This framework will guide your analysis and interpretation of findings.

Qualitative Analysis: Use software like Delve to streamline your qualitative analysis process. Delve offers transparency and ease in organizing your data, enhancing the thoroughness of your review. The web-based software also supports and streamlines collaborative analysis with others.

Writing Your Review: Once you have gathered and analyzed your literature, use Scrivener to structure and write your dissertation. Scrivener provides powerful tools for organizing and managing your writing project effectively.

Finalizing Your Paper: To add the final touches, format and polish your paper using classic tools like Microsoft Word or Google Docs. 

💡 ADDITIONAL TIPS

Be Systematic: Follow a structured approach in searching, evaluating, and synthesizing literature to ensure thoroughness and consistency. Having a bread trail of notes and benchmarks will help you locate and troubleshoot issues more efficiently.

Stay Current: Focus on the most recent studies or those cited frequently in your field to ensure your research is up-to-date and relevant.

Following these steps and utilizing tools like Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote, Delve, Scrivener, Microsoft Word, and Google Docs can help you create a professional-level literature review that supports and enhances your qualitative research paper.

How to Write About Qualitative Analysis Tools In Your Dissertation

Delve’s user-friendly, web-based coding software helps you quickly uncover hidden patterns and insightful themes. Let's explore how researchers like those mentioned above have used Delve and how they reference its role within their research process. 

In Baker's Grounded Theory Study on E-Leadership in the U.S. Army :

“Delve saved me valuable time and assisted in my ability to evaluate the Zoom audio and visual data files by transcribing the audio files and allowing me to add notes regarding the nonverbal data attained from the visual files. This analysis then continued with thematic identifications and verifications through systematic reviews to ensure the trustworthiness of the data” (p. 7).

Delve is one of the most manageable computer-aided qualitative data analysis (CAQDA) software tools to learn and apply and is competitively priced. Furthermore, the free tutorials from the Delvetool.com website showed me how the software could assist the researcher by improving the efficiency gained by not consolidating and coding the data manually. The large amount of data gathered from conducting eleven 45-minute interviews required this type of robust, user-friendly software package, saving time and improving the validity and credibility of my research” (p. 71-72).

In Cetrone’s Exploring Physician Assistant students' perceptions of stress and help seeking behavior:

“Transcriptions of each focus group were reviewed and organized into categories using Delve (www.delvetool.com) software to facilitate identifying common themes. Codes were to be identified by examining common phrases and sentiments across the written survey responses and the focus group questions following Saldana's premise. Once the codes were first determined, the second coding cycle would follow to streamline the codes further and help identify common threads and emerging themes in the data analysis process. Once the codes were streamlined, various themes for each guiding research question were identified” (p. 97).

In Ianaconi’s Perceived problems and advantages associated with teaching band in rural northern New York :

“Using the coding program Delve, the researcher created codes that identified reoccurring themes using a line-by-line approach. The coding process also included the use of descriptive and in-vivo codes. Theoretical saturation was also tested during the open coding process. Open codes were organized into categories or axial codes. The researcher developed a theoretical implication from the axial codes and lived experiences of the study participants” (p. 71-72).

The researcher used the DelveTool to organize and identify codes during this analysis. Transcripts were classified into individual segments using the DelveTool website. The researcher identified 480 unique segments from participant interviews and survey responses. Selected segments highlighted a theme or idea related to the study's research questions” (p. 84).

In McGowan’s Parent perspectives for elementary instrumental music participation :

“Interview analysis for text coding was performed using the Delve Tool. Multiple rounds of coding were conducted in a spiral manner to ensure consistency and accuracy. Many answers to questions received multiple codes due to overlap in participant answers. For example, schedule and location were separate codes. However, many participants talked about both in relation to one another rather than as individual topics. After that, themes were developed via the codes. Online tools are becoming common and valuable in the data analysis process” (p. 76).

The Delve Tool was accessed to create a qualitative codebook. Oliveira stated, “Codebooks are a well-established tool for improving the consistency of coding in qualitative research projects.” After the initial codebook creation, the researcher further refined themes, which required making, as one researcher defined it, “multiple decisions on deleting, merging, relabelling, and expanding codes to fine-tune their contribution to the analysis of the data” (p. 76).

In Duggins’ The influence of homeland culture on first-generation immigrants caring for children with autism :

“The DELVE program is a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software tool (CAQDAS) used to streamline and manage the systematic analysis of the qualitative data derived from the participant interviews. As the DELVE program reads through the data transcription, it identifies and records repeated words patterns, phrases, and meanings as codes and assists in organizing the data analysis” (pp. 102-103).

“The DELVE software scrutinized the field notes, interviews, and other data documents line by line and broke the data down into smaller manageable “chunks,” fragments or patterns of narrative data to permit the data to be divided, inspected, and grouped (Christensen, 2017, p. 84). In seeking to allow the codes to emerge from the participants’ words, the DELVE program was not loaded with prescribed codes” (p. 103).

Delve freed these researchers to dig deeper into their data and make meaningful contributions to their field by streamlining data organization, coding, and theme identification. Its efficiency and ease of use enhance qualitative research's validity and credibility.

Last Word On Formatting Your Qualitative Analysis Paper

This guide helps you make key decisions about structuring and formatting your research paper, from APA and MLA to IMRAD and beyond.

We’ve also introduced tools like Zotero and Mendeley to help organize your literature review, while Scrivener aids in structuring and writing your dissertation. Delve is another convenient tool we covered that helps with your analysis phase and makes it easy to code and organize your data in less time. 

By integrating these tools into your research process, you can streamline your workflow and enhance the quality of your qualitative analysis. Start your free trial of Delve today!

Common Q&As: Formatting a Qualitative Research Paper

Q: What is the main difference between APA and MLA styles? A: APA is used primarily in social sciences and emphasizes the date of publication, while MLA is used in humanities and focuses on authorship.

Q: How do I choose the right format for my qualitative research paper? A: Consider your discipline, research type, and journal requirements. Align the format with your research objectives and ensure consistency in citations and references.

Q: What should be included in a literature review? A: A literature review should define your research question, evaluate relevant literature, identify research gaps, and establish a theoretical framework.

Q: How do I structure my methodology chapter for qualitative research? A: In the methodology chapter, provide a detailed description of your research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. This helps ensure transparency and replicability.

Q: What are common mistakes to avoid in qualitative research papers? A: Common mistakes include failing to align the research question with the methodology, inadequate literature review, and lack of clear structure in presenting findings. Ensure each part of your paper is well-integrated and logically flows.

Q: How do I incorporate theoretical frameworks in my qualitative research paper? A: Theoretical frameworks should be introduced in the literature review and used to guide your research questions and methodology. Clearly explain how the chosen framework relates to your study and helps interpret your findings.

Q: Can I use the IMRAD format with APA style? A: No, APA style includes specific guidelines for formatting your paper, including the title page, abstract, headings, and reference list. IMRAD is a separate structure used primarily in scientific papers. APA focuses more on citation and formatting rules rather than the structure of the content.

Q: What are the main differences between APA style and the IMRAD format? A: APA style provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and structure, while IMRAD is a specific format for organizing scientific papers into Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections. APA can incorporate IMRAD, but they serve different purposes.

Q: How do I format a qualitative research paper in APA style? A: When formatting a qualitative research paper in APA style, follow guidelines for the title page, abstract, headings, and reference list. Use APA's recommended structure for your specific type of research, which might differ from the IMRAD format.

Q: What should be included on the title page in APA style? A: The title page in APA style should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It may also include the course name, instructor’s name, and the date, depending on the specific requirements.

Q: How do I structure the abstract in an APA-style paper? A: The abstract in an APA-style paper should be a concise summary of your research, typically between 150-250 words. It should include your research topic, research questions, methods, results, and conclusions. The abstract should be on a separate page immediately following the title page

References (in APA style):

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.

Modern Language Association of America. (2021). MLA handbook (9th ed.). Modern Language Association of America.

University of Chicago Press. (2017). The Chicago manual of style (17th ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Baker, S. A. (2023). A grounded theory study on e-leadership in the U.S. Army (Order No. 30525722) [Doctoral dissertation, Colorado Technical University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Duggins, P. F. (2022). The influence of homeland culture on first-generation immigrants caring for children with autism. (Order No. 30631564) [Doctoral dissertation, Lesley University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Cetrone, K. (2023). Exploring Physician Assistant students' perceptions of stress and help seeking behavior. (Order No. 30486083) [Doctoral dissertation, Lesley University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Ianaconi, III, J. C. (2023). Perceived problems and advantages associated with teaching band in rural northern New York. [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Scholars Crossing: The institutional repository of Liberty University. 

McGowan, S. W. (2024). Parent perspectives for elementary instrumental music participation. [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Scholars Crossing: The institutional repository of Liberty University. 

Cite This Blog Post:

Delve, Ho, L., & Limpaecher, A. (2024, July 29). Practical Guide to Qualitative Research Paper Formats . Essential Guide to Coding Qualitative Data. https://delvetool.com/blog/guide-qualitative-research-paper-formats

Dual exposure-by-polygenic score interactions highlight disparities across social groups in the proportion needed to benefit

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The transferability of polygenic scores across population groups is a major concern with respect to the equitable clinical implementation of genomic medicine. Since genetic associations are identified relative to the population mean, inevitably differences in disease or trait prevalence among social strata influence the relationship between PGS and risk. Here we quantify the magnitude of PGS-by-Exposure (PGSxE) interactions for seven human diseases (coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity thresholded to body mass index and to waist-to-hip ratio, inflammatory bowel disease, chronic kidney disease, and asthma) and pairs of 75 exposures in the White-British subset of the UK Biobank study (n=408,801). Across 24,198 PGSxE models, 746 (3.1%) were significant by two criteria, at least three-fold more than expected by chance under each criterion. Predictive accuracy is significantly improved in the high-risk exposures and by including interaction terms with effects as large as those documented for low transferability of PGS across ancestries. The predominant mechanism for PGS×E interactions is shown to be amplification of genetic effects in the presence of adverse exposures such as low polyunsaturated fatty acids, mediators of obesity, and social determinants of ill health. We introduce the notion of the proportion needed to benefit (PNB) which is the cumulative number needed to treat across the range of the PGS and show that typically this is halved in the 70 th to 80 th percentile. These findings emphasize how individuals experiencing adverse exposures stand to preferentially benefit from interventions that may reduce risk, and highlight the need for more comprehensive sampling across socioeconomic groups in the performance of genome-wide association studies.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by a grant from the U.S. National Institutes of Health to G.G. (R01-DK119991). Analyses using the UK Biobank Resource were performed under Institutional Review Board approved application number 17984.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Analyses using the UK Biobank Resource were performed under Institutional Review Board approved application number 17984.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

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