research paper on environmental impact

Fact Sheet | Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021)

By savannah bertrand.

December 17, 2021

The use of fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—results in significant climate, environmental, and health costs that are not reflected in market prices. These costs are known as externalities. Each stage of the fossil fuel supply chain, from extraction and transportation to refining and burning, generates externalities. This fact sheet provides a survey of some of the externalities associated with fossil fuels.

Climate Externalities

When fossil fuels are burned, they emit greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide that trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere and contribute to climate change. In 2019, fossil fuels accounted for  74 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. Nearly 25 percent of emissions in the United States come from fossil fuels extracted from public lands. Some of the climate externalities of fossil fuels include:

• Ocean acidification: At least a quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuels is absorbed by the ocean, changing its chemistry (pH). The increased acidity makes it harder for marine organisms to build shells and coral skeletons. Over the last 150 years, ocean acidity has increased by 30 percent , posing threats to coral reefs, fishing, tourism, and the economy.
• Extreme weather : According to the N ational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , climate change, brought upon by burning fossil fuels, is contributing to more frequent and severe extreme weather events that lead to disasters costing at least a billion dollars each. The cost of extreme weather events, including wildfires, hurricanes, wind storms, flooding, and droughts, between 2016 and 2020 in the United States has been estimated at $606.9 billion .
• Sea level rise : Oceanic and atmospheric warming due to climate change is melting glaciers and land-based ice sheets, resulting in global sea level rise . Sea levels have risen about 9 inches since the late 1800s, causing more frequent flooding, destructive storm surges, and saltwater intrusion. With 40 percent of the U.S. population living along the coasts, it is estimated that defending coastal communities from sea level rise could cost $400 billion over the next 20 years.

Environmental Externalities

Fossil fuels have significant environmental externalities including:

• Air pollution : Fossil fuels produce hazardous air pollutants , including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and mercury, all of which are harmful to the environment and human health (as discussed in the health section below). Air pollution from fossil fuels can cause acid rain, eutrophication (excessive nutrients that can harm aquatic ecosystems by lowering oxygen levels), damage to crops and forests, and harm to wildlife.
• Water pollution: From oil spills to fracking fluids, fossil fuels cause water pollution. Each fracking well uses between 1.5 million to 16 million gallons of water, and the resulting wastewater can be toxic, often containing substances like arsenic, lead, chlorine, and mercury that can contaminate groundwater and drinking water.
• Plastic pollution : Over 99 percent of plastics are made from fossil fuels. Globally, 300 million tons of plastic waste are produced each year, 14 million tons of which end up in the ocean, killing wildlife and polluting the food chain. Plastics also have climate consequences: the U.S. plastic industry produces 232 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, and the industry’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected to surpass those of coal-fired power plants by 2030.
• Oil spills: Fossil fuel extraction, transportation, and refining can lead to oil spills that harm communities and wildlife , destroy habitats, erode shorelines, and result in beach, park, and fishery closures. The largest oil spill in history, the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon spill, released 134 million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, killing 11 people and countless birds, turtles, fish, marine mammals, and plants—and cost BP $65 billion in penalties and cleanup costs.

Health Externalities

Air pollution from burning fossil fuels can cause multiple health issues , including asthma, cancer, heart disease, and premature death. Combusting the additives found in gasoline—benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene—produces cancer-causing ultra-fine particles and aromatic hydrocarbons. Globally, fossil fuel pollution is responsible for one in five deaths. In the United States, 350,000 premature deaths in 2018 were attributed to fossil fuel-related pollution, with the highest number of deaths per capita in states like Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. The annual cost of the health impacts of fossil fuel-generated electricity in the United States is estimated to be up to $886.5 billion .

The environmental and health impacts of fossil fuels disproportionately harm communities of color and low-income communities. Black and Hispanic Americans are exposed to 56 and 63 percent more particulate matter pollution, respectively, than they produce. In a predominantly Black and low-income area of Louisiana known as “Cancer Alley,” the cancer risk is nearly 50 times higher than the national average due to 150 nearby chemical plants and oil refineries.

Policy Mechanisms to Reduce Fossil Fuel Externalities

Several policy mechanisms have been proposed to reduce fossil fuel externalities, including:

• Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies , which could generate $35 billion in taxpayer savings over the next ten years. To learn more about policy mechanisms to phase out fossil fuel subsidies, check out EESI’s fact sheet .
• Increasing the social cost of carbon (SCC) , which estimates the often-uncounted economic damages that result from carbon dioxide emissions. The federal government uses SCC to evaluate the climate impacts of policies.
• A federal clean electricity standard , which would require a percentage of the electricity sold by utilities to come from clean electricity sources. Such standards already exist in several states and usually require the share of clean energy on the electric grid to increase over time.
• A carbon price , which sets a price on carbon dioxide emissions that is paid by emitters. Carbon price policies can be structured in different ways , including as a carbon tax. Cap-and-trade programs like the Northeast's Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative , in which the market determines a carbon price, have existed at the subnational level for many years, reducing emissions and creating new revenue streams for clean energy investments.

Author: Savannah Bertrand

Editor: Anna McGinn

Graphic: Emma Johnson

For the endnotes, please download the PDF version of this issue brief .

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• Published: 05 June 2024

How we talk about harmful chemicals in the environment

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Modelling study finds rural employment scheme plays an important role in forest cover

• A study based in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, found that after a certain threshold, employment generation schemes like MGNREGA led to big gains in both livelihood and forest cover outcomes in areas with plantations.
• The impact of MGNREGA leads to a high win-win outcome for livelihood and forest cover when job days cross 1210, the researchers found.
• Apart from livelihood schemes, strengthening local decision making bodies which are based on collective action could also help livelihood and forest outcomes, the study found.

Social welfare schemes such as the one under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) could have a positive impact on forest cover, apart from providing income and employment, a new research paper studying the relationship between tree plantations and livelihood benefits has suggested.

Researchers from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala, Florida State University, University of Minnesota and the Forest Department in Himachal Pradesh sought to understand what conditions helped improve both forest and livelihood outcomes in Kangra district in Himachal Pradesh, where tree plantation drives are common.

They found that joint positive outcomes were more likely in areas where marginalised groups had histories in engaging with collective action, of mutually exchanging labour for ​​the purposes of forestry, agriculture, construction and cultural activities. They also found that, after a certain threshold, employment generation schemes like the MGNREGA scheme led to big gains for both livelihood and forest cover in areas with plantations.

The MGNREGA scheme is a government scheme implemented in 2006 which ensures livelihood security in rural India by providing guaranteed employment for 100 days a year for at least one adult of every household.

MGNREGA as a social safety net

Though changes in forest cover and poverty have been studied before, the interrelationships between the two in forested areas is less understood. The researchers used 36 variables covering socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of local communities, institutional dynamics of forest governance and plantation activity, and the biophysical characteristics of 377 plantations in Kangra district as part of the study.

The researchers used interpretable machine learning (IML) to create predictive insights into which variables produced win-win outcomes for both livelihood and forest cover, as well as win-lose and lose-lose outcomes. “The results need to be read with caution, because this type of analysis only provides associations between factors and multiple outcomes based on predictive analysis, and it doesn’t give us the cause for why we see these patterns,” said Pushpendra Rana, a senior officer with the Indian Forest Service in Himachal Pradesh and lead author of the study.

For a win-win outcome, where the model showed improvements in forest cover from tree plantations as well as improvements in livelihood, the presence of Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes were found to be the biggest influencing factor, followed by level of education and number of work days under MGNREGA. Higher levels of education coincided with lower levels of win-win outcomes, which the researchers speculate could be due to less dependence on forest resources as education levels rise. The impact of MGNREGA, however, leads to a high win-win probability when an individual’s job days cross 1210, the researchers found.

In settings where marginalised groups don’t have access to higher levels of education, MGNREGA can act as a “robust social safety net,” which “may help to reduce dependence on forest resources for the poor and marginal, thus making it more possible to support livelihoods at a base level while also achieving forest growth,” the paper says.

Ashwini Chhatre, Associate Professor at the Indian School of Business (ISB), who was not involved with the study, said the MGNREGA scheme offers flexibility in that the design of the scheme, which guarantees employment for 100 days a year, allows for rural infrastructure development to be considered alongside environmental conservation . “With MGNREGA, it’s possible to find places where forest restoration opportunities and livelihood opportunities overlap, and to build a project that can satisfy both at a village level. But this type of high resolution design is not possible in central planning. Often this type of overlap is invisible to the district collector and other planners,” he said.

To understand how plantations impact livelihoods, the researchers limited the definition of livelihood benefits to dependence on forest resources. This definition builds on previous research by the same researchers which found that mass tree planting in Kangra shifted the composition of trees away from broadleaf varieties which were valued by local people, and led to less use of them, thus negatively impacting livelihood goals. Broadleaf varieties and grasses are popularly used for fuelwood and fodder.

While it helps clarify the impacts of plantations on resource use, such a definition of livelihood benefits may not be able to accommodate the changing aspirations of rural populations, said Chhatre. “Accessing fuel wood and fodder is not the only interest or livelihood benefit among these groups, especially as you climb up the education ladder. Forests also need to be able to generate jobs and wealth among these communities, through sustainable means. More research needs to be done in this area too.”

Addressing poverty and forest cover

Other measures for poverty alleviation have also been found to help forest outcomes. A study from the dry tropical forests of central India found that alternatives to fuelwood for cooking and non-forest-based housing material led to improvements in living standards and reduced pressure on the degradation of forests.

Apart from livelihood schemes, strengthening local decision-making bodies which are based on collective action could also help livelihood and forest outcomes, said Rana. “Whether these local institutions are focussed on forestry or not, we find that more institutions focussing on collective action lead to the best outcomes. Strong consolidated committees can help avoid conflict and facilitate decision-making, which we found benefited both forests and people,” he said.

Read more: A framework for quantifying the climate co-benefits of MGNREGS

Banner image: MGNREGA work underway, removing mud from a pond, in Sirsa, Haryana. Image by Mulkh Singh via Wikimedia Commons ( CC BY-SA 4.0 ).

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• v.6(9); 2020 Sep

Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability

Tanjena rume.

a Department of Geological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh

S.M. Didar-Ul Islam

b Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh

The global outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting every part of human lives, including the physical world. The measures taken to control the spread of the virus and the slowdown of economic activities have significant effects on the environment. Therefore, this study intends to explore the positive and negative environmental impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, by reviewing the available scientific literatures. This study indicates that, the pandemic situation significantly improves air quality in different cities across the world, reduces GHGs emission, lessens water pollution and noise, and reduces the pressure on the tourist destinations, which may assist with the restoration of the ecological system. In addition, there are also some negative consequences of COVID-19, such as increase of medical waste, haphazard use and disposal of disinfectants, mask, and gloves; and burden of untreated wastes continuously endangering the environment. It seems that, economic activities will return soon after the pandemic, and the situation might change. Hence, this study also outlines possible ways to achieve long-term environmental benefits. It is expected that the proper implementation of the proposed strategies might be helpful for the global environmental sustainability.

Environmental assessment; Environmental pollution; Environmental management; Environmental sustainability; COVID-19; Public health; Lockdown; GHGs emission; Biomedical waste.

1. Introduction

The outbreak of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) first emerged at the end of December 2019, from the Hunan seafood market in Wuhan City of China, and declared as an international public health emergency in a couple of weeks by the World Health Organization ( WHO, 2020a ). It is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) ( Islam et al., 2020 ; Nghiem et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). Genomic analysis revealed that SARS-CoV-2 is phylogenetically associated with SARS viruses, and bats could be the possible primary source ( Chakraborty and Maity, 2020 ). Although the intermediate source of origin and transfer to humans is not clearly known, the rapid human to human transmission capability of this virus has been established ( Hui et al., 2020 ). The transmission of the virus mainly occurred through person-to-person via direct contact or droplets produced by coughing, sneezing and talking ( Islam et al., 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). As of September 06, 2020; the virus has claimed to spread 216 countries, areas or territories with the death of 876, 616 humans from 26,763,217 confirmed cases ( WHO, 2020a ), and the number is increasing rapidly. The geographic distribution of COVID-19 cases ( Figure 1 ), and the epidemic curve indicating the number of confirmed cases and deaths in different parts of the world are illustrated in Figure 2 .

Geographic distribution of 14-day cumulative number of reported COVID-19 cases per 100000 populations, as of September 06, 2020 (Source: ECDC, 2020 ).

Number of COVID-19 cases reported weekly by WHO region, and total deaths, up to September 06, 2020 (Data source: WHO, 2020c ).

Usually, the symptoms of COVID-19 infection include fever, chills, cough, sore throat, breathing difficulty, myalgia or fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea ( Huang et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). Severe cases can lead to cardiac injury, respiratory failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and even death ( Holshue, 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). Older people along with other underlying medical conditions are at a high risk of mortality ( Chen, 2020 ). Till date, there has not been any significant breakthrough in the development of an effective medicine or a vaccine for this disease. National and international authorities and experts suggest the use of non-pharmaceutical measures like wearing face masks and hand gloves, washing hands with soap, frequent use of antiseptic solution and maintaining social distance ( Hui et al., 2020 ; Sajed and Amgain, 2020 ; WHO, 2020b ). To control the spread of the virus and reduce the death rate, government of most of the affected countries initiated to restrict the movement of people. Figure 3 illustrates global examples of the country wise number of people placed on enforced lockdown due to the coronavirus pandemic. It is found that India restricted the movement of the largest number of people (approximately 1.3 billion) as a preventive measure of COVID-19, which started from March 24, 2020 ( Somani et al., 2020 ). Except emergency services (e.g., medical, fire, police, food supply etc.), all other organizations including educational institutions are being closed to encourage people to stay at home. All the public transport services (e.g., bus, truck, train, aeroplanes etc.) were suspended, with exceptions of the transportation of essential goods and emergency services ( Tripathi, 2020 ). In Italy, the most extensive travel restrictions are placed after the second World War ( Cellini et al., 2020 ). In London, the typically bustling pubs, bars and theatres have been closed, and people have been advised to stay at home. As of April 7, 2020, World Economic Forum reported, nearly 3 billion people are faced with some form of lockdown globally, and movement is being restricted by respective governments to control the COVID-19 infection ( WEF, 2020 ). Overall, the pandemic has caused huge global socio-economic disruption, which directly or indirectly affected the environment like improvement of air and water quality, reduction of noise and restoration of ecology ( Chakraborty and Maity, 2020 ; Somani et al., 2020 ; Saadat et al., 2020 ). Moreover, the increased use of personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., face mask, hand gloves, gowns, goggles, face shield etc.), and their haphazard disposal creates environmental burden ( Fadare and Okoffo, 2020 ; Nghiem et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2020 ). In these circumstances, this study intended to explore the positive and negative environmental consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and propose possible strategies as future guideline for environmental sustainability.

Global example of the number of people (as of April 23, 2020) placed on enforced lockdown during the outbreak of COVID-19 (Data source: Buchholz, 2020 ).

2. Methodology

This study was performed by reviewing the available published literatures, case studies, and different government and non-government organizations information from reports and official websites. Scientific literatures were collected through electronic means from the database of Science Direct, Springer, PubMed, Tailor and Francis, ISI Web of Knowledge, Research Gate, and Google Scholar but not in a systematic manner. From a large number of studies, this study compiles and presents the data and information which are relevant to the environmental effects of COVID-19 and meet the study goals.

3. Environmental effects of COVID-19

The global disruption caused by the COVID-19 has brought about several effects on the environment and climate. Due to movement restriction and a significant slowdown of social and economic activities, air quality has improved in many cities with a reduction in water pollution in different parts of the world. Besides, increased use of PPE (e.g., face mask, hand gloves etc.), their haphazard disposal, and generation of a huge amount of hospital waste has negative impacts on the environment. Both positive and negative environmental impacts of COVID-19 are present in Figure 4 .

Positive and negative environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic.

3.1. Positive environmental effects

3.1.1. reduction of air pollution and ghgs emission.

As industries, transportation and companies have closed down, it has brought a sudden drop of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. Compared with this time of last year, levels of air pollution in Ney York has reduced by nearly 50% because of measures taken to control the virus ( Henriques, 2020 ). It was estimated that nearly 50% reduction of N 2 O and CO occurred due to the shutdown of heavy industries in China ( Caine, 2020 ). Also, emission of NO₂ is one of the key indicators of global economic activities, which indicates a sign of reduction in many countries (e.g., US, Canada, China, India, Italy, Brazil etc.) due to the recent shut down ( Biswal et al., 2020 ; Ghosh, 2020 ; Saadat et al., 2020 ; Somani et al., 2020 ). Usually, NO 2 is emitted from the burning of fossil fuels, 80% of which comes from motor vehicle exhaust ( USEPA, 2016 ). It is reported that NO 2 causes acid rain with the interaction of O 2 and H 2 O, and several respiratory diseases suffered by humans ( USEPA, 2016 ). The European Environmental Agency (EEA) predicted that, because of the COVID-19 lockdown, NO 2 emission dropped from 30-60% in many European cities including Barcelona, Madrid, Milan, Rome and Paris ( EEA, 2020 ). In the US NO 2 declined 25.5% during the COVID-19 period compared to previous years ( Berman and Edisu, 2020 ). The level of NO 2 demonstrated a reduction across Ontario (Canada) and found to be reduced from 4.5 ppb to 1 ppb ( Adams, 2020 ). Up to 54.3% decrease of NO 2 was observed in Sao Paulo of Brazil ( Nakada and Urban, 2020 ). It was also stated that, the levels of NO 2 and PM 2.5 reduced by almost 70% in Delhi, the capital of India ( Thiessen, 2020 ). Overall, 46% and 50% reduction of PM2.5 and PM 10 respectively, was reported in India during the nationwide lockdown ( IEP, 2020 ).

It is assumed that, vehicles and aviation are key contributors of emissions and contribute almost 72% and 11% of the transport sector's GHGs emission respectively ( Henriques, 2020 ). The measures taken globally for the containment of the virus are also having a dramatic impact on the aviation sector. Many countries restricted international travelers from entry and departure. Due to the decreased passengers and restrictions, worldwide flights are being cancelled by commercial aircraft companies. For instance, China reduces almost 50–90% capacity of departing and 70% domestic flights due to the pandemic, compared to January 20, 2020, which ultimately deducted nearly 17% of national CO 2 emissions ( Zogopoulos, 2020 ). Furthermore, it is reported that 96% of air travel dropped from a similar time last year globally due to the COVID-19 pandemic ( Wallace, 2020 ), which has ultimate effects on the environment.

Overall, much less consumption of fossil fuels lessens the GHGs emission, which helps to combat against global climate change. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), oil demand has dropped 435,000 barrels globally in the first three months of 2020, compared to the same period of last year ( IEA, 2020 ). Besides, global coal consumption is also reduced because of less energy demand during the lockdown period ( Figure 5 ). It is reported that, coal-based power generation reduced 26% in India with 19% reduction of total power generation after lockdown ( CREA, 2020 ). Again, China, the highest coal consumer in the world, dropped 36% compared to same time of the preceding year (early February to mid-march) ( CREA, 2020 ; Ghosh, 2020 ). According to UK based climate science and policy website Carbon Brief, recent crisis of COVID-19 reduces 25% CO 2 emission in China, and nonetheless below the normal limit more than two months after the country entered lockdown ( Evans, 2020 ). They also projected that, the pandemic could cut 1,600 metric tons of CO 2 , equivalent to above 4% of the global total in 2019 ( Evans, 2020 ).

Coal based electricity generation scenario before and after lockdown in the periphery of Delhi, India, along with total electricity consumption reduction in some selected countries (Data sources: Armstrong, 2020 ; CREA, 2020 ).

3.1.2. Reduction of water pollution

Water pollution is a common phenomenon of a developing country like India, and Bangladesh, where domestic and industrial wastes are dumped into rivers without treatment ( Islam and Azam, 2015 ; Islam and Huda, 2016 ; Bodrud-Doza et al., 2020 ; Yunus et al., 2020 ). During the lockdown period, the major industrial sources of pollution have shrunk or completely stopped, which helped to reduce the pollution load ( Yunus et al., 2020 ). For instance, the river Ganga and Yamuna have reached a significant level of purity due to the absence of industrial pollution on the days of lockdown in India. It is found that, among the 36 real-time monitoring stations of river Ganga, water from 27 stations met the permissible limit ( Singhal and Matto, 2020 ). This improvement of water quality at Haridwar and Rishikesh was ascribed to the sudden drop of the number of visitors and 500% reduction of sewage and industrial effluents ( Singhal and Matto, 2020 ; Somani et al., 2020 ). According to the real-time water quality monitoring data of the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board ( UPCB, 2020 ) of India, physicochemical parameters i.e, pH (7.4–7.8), dissolved oxygen (DO) (9.4–10.6 mg/L), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (0.6–1.2 mg/L) and total coliform (40–90 MPN/100 mL) of the river Ganga was found within the surface water quality standard of India. Except total coliform in some monitoring stations, all others parameters even meet the national drinking water quality standard, which can be used without conventional treatment but after disinfection (Class A) ( BIS, 2012 ). It is also found that, the concentration of pH, electric conductivity (EC), DO, BOD and chemical oxygen demand (COD) has reduced almost 1–10%, 33–66%, 45–90%, and 33–82% respectively in different monitoring stations during the lockdown in comparison to the pre-lockdown period ( Arif et al., 2020 ). Moreover, due to imposed a ban of public gathering, number of tourists and water activities were reduced in many places ( Cripps, 2020 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). It is reported that, due to the lockdown of COVID-19, the Grand Canal of Italy turned clear, and reappearances of many aquatic species ( Clifford, 2020 ). Water pollution are also reduced in the beach areas of Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Maldives, and Indonesia ( Kundu, 2020 ; Rahman, 2020 ). Jribi et al. (2020) reported that, due to the COVID-19 lockdown, the amount of food waste is reduced in Tunisia, which ultimately reduces soil and water pollution. However, the amount of industrial water consumption is also reduced, especially from the textile sector around the glove ( Cooper, 2020 ). Usually, huge amount of solid trashes is generated from construction and manufacturing process responsible for water and soil pollution, also reduced. Moreover, owing to the reduction of export-import business, the movement of merchant ship and other vessels are reduced globally, which also reduces emission as well as marine pollution.

3.1.3. Reduction of noise pollution

Noise pollution is the elevated levels of sound, generated from different human activities (e.g., machines, vehicles, construction work), which may lead to adverse effects in human and other living organisms ( Goines and Hagler, 2007 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). Usually, noise negatively effects on physiological health, along with cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, and sleep shortness of human ( Kerns et al., 2018 ). It is reported that, globally around 360 million people are prone to hearing loss due to noise pollution ( Sims, 2020 ). World Health Organization predicted that in Europe alone, over 100 million people are exposed to high noise levels, above the recommended limit ( WHO, 2012 ). Moreover, anthropogenic noise pollution has adverse impacts on wildlife through the changing balance in predator and prey detection and avoidance. Unwanted noise also negatively effects on the invertebrates, that help to control environmental processes which are vital for the balance of the ecosystem ( Solan et al., 2016 ). However, the quarantine and lockdown measures mandate that people stay at home and reduced economic activities and communication worldwide, which ultimately reduced noise level in most cities ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). For instance, noise level of Delhi the capital of India, is reduced drastically around 40–50% in the recent lockdown period ( Somani et al., 2020 ). Due to reduction of vehicle movement during the lockdown period, the noise levels of Govindpuri metro station (Delhi) is reduced 50–60 dB, from 100 dB ( Gandhiok and Ibra, 2020 ). According to the Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB, 2020 ) of India, noise level of residential area of Delhi is reduced 55 dB (daytime) and 45 dB (night) to 40 dB (daytime) and 30 dB (night) respectively. As a result, city dwellers are now enjoying the chirping of birds, which usually ranges from 40-50 dB ( Gandhiok and Ibra, 2020 ). Moreover, due to travel restrictions, the number of flights and vehicular movements have drastically reduced around the world, which have ultimately reduced the level of noise pollution. For example, in Germany passenger air travel has been slashed by over 90%, car traffic has dropped by >50% and trains are running <25% than the usual rates ( Sims, 2020 ). Overall, COVID-19 lockdown, and lessens of economic activities reduced the noise pollution around the globe.

3.1.4. Ecological restoration and assimilation of tourist spots

Over the past few years, tourism sector has witnessed a remarkable growth because of technological advancements and transport networks; which contribute significantly to global gross domestic product (GDP) ( Lenzen et al., 2018 ). It is estimated that the tourism industry is responsible for 8% of global GHGs emission ( Lenzen et al., 2018 ). However, the places of natural beauty (e.g., beaches, islands, national park, mountains, desert and mangroves) are usually attracting the tourists, and make a huge harsh. To facilitate and accommodate them, lots of hotels, motel, restaurant, bar and market are built, which consume lots of energy and other natural resources ( Pereira et al., 2017 ). For instance, Puig et al. (2017) calculated the carbon footprint of coastland hotel services of Spain and reported electricity and fuels consumption take a key role, and 2-star hotels have the highest carbon emissions. Moreover, visitors dump various wastes which impair natural beauty and create ecological imbalance ( Islam and Bhuiyan, 2018 ). Due to the outbreak of COVID-19 and local restrictions, the number of tourists have reduced in the tourist spots around the world ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). For instance, Phuket, Thailand's most popular tourist's destination goes into lockdown on April 9, 2020, due to the surge of Covid-19, where an average 5,452 visitors visit per day ( Cripps, 2020 ). Similarly, local administration imposed a ban on public gathering and tourist arrivals at Cox's Bazar sea beach, known as the longest unbroken natural sand sea beach in the world. As a result of restriction, the color of sea water is changed, which usually remain turbid because of swimming, bathing, playing and riding motorized boats ( Rahman, 2020 ). Nature gets a time to assimilate human annoyance, and due to pollution reduction recently returning of dolphins was reported in the coast of Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh) and canals, waterways, and ports of Venice (Italy) after a long decade ( Rahman, 2020 ; Kundu, 2020 ).

3.2. Negative environmental effects

3.2.1. increase of biomedical waste generation.

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, medical waste generation is increased globally, which is a major threat to public health and environment. For sample collection of the suspected COVID-19 patients, diagnosis, treatment of huge number of patients, and disinfection purpose lots of infectious and biomedical wastes are generated from hospitals ( Somani et al., 2020 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). For instance, Wuhan in China produced more than 240 metric tons of medical wastes every day during the time of the outbreak ( Saadat et al., 2020 ), which is almost 190 m tonnes higher than the normal time ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). Again, in the city of Ahmedabad of India, the amount of medical waste generation is increased from 550-600 kg/day to around 1000 kg/day at the time of the first phase of lockdown ( Somani et al., 2020 ). Around 206 m tonnes of medical waste are generated per day in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh because of COVID-19 ( Rahman et al., 2020 ). Also other cities like Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Hanoi, and Bangkok experienced similar increases, producing 154–280 m tonnes more medical waste per day than before the pandemic ( ADB, 2020 ). Such a sudden rise of hazardous waste, and their proper management has become a significant challenge to the local waste management authorities. According to the recent published literature, it is reported that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can exist a day on cardboard, and up to 3 days on plastics and stainless steel ( Van-Doremalen et al., 2020 ). So, waste generated from the hospitals (e.g., needles, syringes, bandage, mask, gloves, used tissue, and discarded medicines etc.) should be managed properly, to reduce further infection and environmental pollution, which is now a matter of concern globally.

3.2.2. Safety equipment use and haphazard disposal

To protect from the viral infection, presently peoples are using face mask, hand gloves and other safety equipment, which increase the amount of healthcare waste. It is reported that, in USA, trash amount has been increasing due to increased PPE use at the domestic level ( Calma, 2020 ). Since the outbreak of COVID-19, the production and use of plastic based PPE is increased worldwide ( Singh et al., 2020 ). For instance, China increased the daily production of medical masks to 14.8 million since from February 2020, which is much higher than before ( Fadare and Okoffo, 2020 ). However, due to lack of knowledge about infectious waste management, most people dump these (e.g., face mask, hand gloves etc.) in open places and in some cases with household wastes ( Rahman et al., 2020 ). Such haphazard dumping of these trashes creates clogging in water ways and worsens environmental pollution ( Singh et al., 2020 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). It is reported that, face mask and other plastic based protective equipment are the potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment ( Fadare and Okoffo, 2020 ). Usually, Polypropylene is used to make N-95 masks, and Tyvek for protective suits, gloves, and medical face shields, which can persist for a long time and release dioxin and toxic elements to the environment ( Singh et al., 2020 ). Though, experts and responsible authorities suggest for the proper disposal and segregation of household organic waste and plastic based protective equipment (hazardous medical waste), but mixing up these wastes increases the risk of disease transmission, and exposure to the virus of waste workers ( Ma et al., 2020 ; Somani et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2020 ).

3.2.3. Municipal solid waste generation, and reduction of recycling

Increase of municipal waste (both organic and inorganic) generation has direct and indirect effects on environment like air, water and soil pollution ( Islam et al., 2016 ). Due to the pandemic, quarantine policies established in many countries have led to an increase in the demand of online shopping for home delivery, which ultimately increase the amount of household wastes from shipped package materials ( Somani et al., 2020 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). However, waste recycling is an effective way to prevent pollution, save energy, and conserve natural resources ( Ma et al., 2019 ). But, due to the pandemic many countries postponed the waste recycling activities to reduce the transmission of viral infection. For instance, USA restricted recycling programs in many cities (nearly 46%), as government worried about the risk of COVID-19 spreading in recycling facilities ( Somani et al., 2020 ). United Kingdom, Italy, and other European countries also prohibited infected residents from sorting their waste ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). Overall, due to disruption of routine municipal waste management, waste recovery and recycling activities, increasing the landfilling and environmental pollutants worldwide.

3.2.4. Other effects on the environment

Recently, huge amount of disinfectants is applied into roads, commercial, and residential areas to exterminate SARS-CoV-2 virus. Such extensive use of disinfectants may kill non-targeted beneficial species, which may create ecological imbalance ( Islam and Bhuiyan, 2016 ). Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 virus was detected in the COVID-19 patient's faeces and also from municipal wastewater in many countries including Australia, India, Sweden, Netherlands and USA ( Ahmed et al., 2020 ; Nghiem et al., 2020 ; Mallapaty, 2020 ). So, additional measures in wastewater treatment are essential, which is challenging for developing countries like Bangladesh, where municipal wastewater is drained into nearby aquatic bodies and rivers without treatment ( Islam and Azam, 2015 ; Rahman and Islam, 2016 ). China has already strengthened the disinfection process (increased use of chlorine) to prevent SARS-CoV-2 virus spreading through the wastewater. But, the excessive use of chlorine in water could generate harmful by-product ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ).

4. Potential strategies of environmental sustainability

It is assumed that, all of these environmental consequences are short-term. So, it is high time to make a proper strategy for long-term benefit, as well as sustainable environmental management. The COVID-19 pandemic has elicited a global response and make us united to win against the virus. Similarly, to protect this globe, the home of human beings, united effort of the countries should be imperative ( Somani et al., 2020 ). Therefore, some possible strategies are proposed for global environmental sustainability ( Figure 6 ).

• i Sustainable industrialization: Industrialization is crucial for economic growth; however, it's time to think about sustainability. For sustainable industrialization, it is essential to shift to less energy-intensive industries, use of cleaner fuels and technologies, and strong energy efficient policies ( Pan, 2016 ). Moreover, industries should be built in some specific zones, keeping in mind that waste from one industry can be used as raw materials of the other ( Hysa et al., 2020 ). After a certain period, industrial zones should have been shut down in a circular way to reduce emission without hampering the national economy. Again, industries especially readymade garments (RMG) and others where a huge number of people work, proper distance and hygienic environment should maintain to reduce the spread of any infectious communicable disease.
• ii Use of green and public transport: To reduce emissions, it is necessary to encourage people to use public transport, rather private vehicles. Besides, people should encourage to use bicycle in a short distance, and public bike sharing (PBS) system (like China) should be available for mass usage, which is not only environment friendly but also beneficial for health.
• iii Use of renewable energy: Use of renewable energy can lower the demand of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which can play an important role in reducing the GHGs emissions ( Ellabban et al., 2014 ; CCAC, 2019 ). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, global energy demand is reduced, which results in the reduction of emission and increased ambient air quality in many areas ( Somani et al., 2020 ; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). But, to maintain the daily needs and global economic growth, it is not possible to cut-off energy demand like a pandemic situation. Hence, use of renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal heat and biomass can meet the energy demand and reduces the GHGs emission ( Ellabban et al., 2014 ).
• iv Wastewater treatment and reuse: To control the challenges of water pollution, both industrial and municipal wastewater should be properly treated before discharge. Besides, reuse of treated wastewater in non-production processes like toilet flushing and road cleaning can reduce the burden of excess water withdrawal.
• v Waste recycling and reuse: To reduce the burden of wastes and environmental pollution, both industrial and municipal wastes should be recycled and reused. Hence, circular economy or circularity systems should implement in the production process to minimize the use of raw material and waste generation ( Hysa et al., 2020 ). Moreover, hazardous and infectious medical waste should be properly managed by following the guidelines ( WHO, 2020c ). It is now clear that majority of the people (especially in developing countries) have a lack of knowledge regarding waste segregation and disposal issues ( Rahman et al., 2020 ). So, government should implement extensive awareness campaign through different mass media, regarding the proper waste segregation, handling and disposal methods.
• vi Ecological restoration and ecotourism: For ecological restoration, tourist spots should periodically shutdown after a certain period. Moreover, ecotourism practice should be strengthened to promote sustainable livelihoods, cultural preservation, and biodiversity conservation ( Islam and Bhuiyan, 2018 ).
• vii Behavioral change in daily life: To reduce the carbon footprint and global carbon emission, it is necessary to change the behavior in our daily life and optimum consumption or resources like; avoid processed and take locally grown food, make compost from food waste, switch off or unplug electronic devices when not used, and use a bicycle instead of a car for short(er) distances.
• viii International cooperation: To meet the sustainable environmental goals and protection of global environmental resources, such as the global climate and biological diversity, combined international effort is essential ( ICIMOD, 2020 ). Hence, responsible international authority like United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) should take effective role to prepare time-oriented policies, arrange international conventions, and coordination of global leaders for proper implementation.

Proposed strategies of sustainable environmental management.

Directly or indirectly, the pandemic is affecting human life and the global economy, which is ultimately affecting the environment and climate. It reminds us how we have neglected the environmental components and enforced human induced climate change. Moreover, the global response of COVID-19 also teaches us to work together to combat against the threat to mankind. Though the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment are short-term, united and proposed time-oriented effort can strengthen environmental sustainability and save the earth from the effects of global climate change.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge all the frontline doctors and healthcare workers fighting this pandemic. Authors are also thankful to the editor and anonymous reviewers who helped with the current shape of the paper by their constructive and insightful comments and suggestions.

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Environmental Fallout: the Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis

This essay is about the significant environmental impacts of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine. It highlights the extensive pollution from destroyed industrial facilities, power plants, and water systems, leading to severe air and water contamination. The war has disrupted Ukraine’s diverse ecosystems, causing soil erosion, habitat destruction, and threats to biodiversity. Long-term ecological degradation is also a concern, with toxic substances from weapons contaminating soil and water for decades. Energy infrastructure has been heavily damaged, increasing reliance on unsustainable energy sources. Addressing these issues requires immediate and long-term strategies focusing on pollution mitigation, ecological restoration, and sustainable development to ensure a resilient future for Ukraine and beyond.

How it works

The ongoing conflict in Ukraine has undoubtedly gripped the world’s attention, primarily for its immediate human toll and geopolitical ramifications. However, beneath the surface of these urgent concerns lies another crisis that often goes unnoticed: the environmental impact. As the war rages on, it is causing profound ecological damage, with effects that could last long after the guns fall silent. This invisible war on nature is a crucial yet underreported aspect of the Ukraine crisis, blending the urgent needs of environmental science with the stark realities of modern warfare.

One of the most immediate environmental repercussions of the conflict is the extensive pollution resulting from the destruction of infrastructure. Industrial facilities, power plants, and water treatment systems have been prime targets, releasing hazardous substances into the air, soil, and water. For instance, the bombing of chemical plants has led to the emission of toxic chemicals, significantly worsening air quality. These pollutants pose severe health risks not only to the local population but also to neighboring regions, as they can travel far beyond their point of origin through atmospheric currents.

Water pollution is another dire consequence. The damage to water infrastructure has resulted in the contamination of rivers and groundwater with industrial chemicals, heavy metals, and sewage. This situation exacerbates public health challenges, especially in conflict zones where medical facilities are already overwhelmed. The scarcity of clean water has forced people to rely on unsafe sources, leading to outbreaks of waterborne diseases and further straining the healthcare system.

The war’s impact on Ukraine’s rich biodiversity is also significant. The country’s varied landscapes, which include fertile agricultural land, forests, and wetlands, have been severely disrupted. The movement of heavy military equipment and the detonation of explosives have caused widespread soil erosion and habitat destruction. This has led to the displacement and death of numerous plant and animal species, some of which are already threatened or endangered. The war has interrupted migratory patterns, destroyed breeding grounds, and fragmented habitats, making it difficult for wildlife to survive and thrive.

In addition to immediate environmental damage, the conflict has the potential to cause long-term ecological degradation. The use of weapons containing toxic substances, such as depleted uranium and white phosphorus, can contaminate soil and water for decades. These substances pose ongoing risks to human health and the environment, as they can enter the food chain and bioaccumulate in living organisms. The destruction of agricultural land has also led to reduced food production, contributing to food insecurity and increasing dependence on international aid.

Energy infrastructure has not been spared either. Attacks on power plants and energy facilities have caused not only immediate disruptions but also long-term damage to energy security. The loss of critical infrastructure has forced communities to rely on alternative energy sources, often less sustainable and more polluting. This shift has increased the environmental footprint and carbon emissions, counteracting global efforts to combat climate change. Rebuilding the damaged energy infrastructure will require significant time and resources, delaying the transition to greener energy systems.

Addressing the environmental impacts of the Ukraine conflict requires a multi-pronged approach. Immediate actions are needed to mitigate pollution and provide clean water and sanitation to affected populations. Repairing and upgrading damaged infrastructure, monitoring environmental quality, and implementing emergency response measures are critical steps. These efforts should be supported by international cooperation and funding to ensure they are effective and sustainable.

Long-term strategies should focus on ecological restoration and sustainable development. Rehabilitating damaged ecosystems, reforesting degraded areas, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices are essential for the region’s recovery. International organizations and environmental NGOs can play a vital role in providing expertise and resources for these initiatives. Integrating environmental considerations into peacebuilding and reconstruction processes can help ensure that environmental sustainability is prioritized in post-conflict recovery.

Interestingly, the environmental crisis in Ukraine can be paralleled with the narratives from post-apocalyptic fiction, where humanity grapples with the remnants of a devastated world. In many ways, the environmental challenges in Ukraine resemble the aftermath of a dystopian scenario, where the line between natural and man-made disasters blurs. This comparison highlights the urgent need for proactive measures to prevent further environmental degradation and to safeguard the planet for future generations.

The conflict in Ukraine serves as a stark reminder of the interconnectedness of human and environmental security. The environmental impacts of war are not confined to the immediate area of conflict but have far-reaching consequences that can affect global ecosystems and human health. As we address the humanitarian and geopolitical aspects of the Ukraine crisis, we must also recognize and tackle the environmental dimensions. This approach will help us build a more resilient and sustainable future for Ukraine and the global community.

In conclusion, the environmental fallout from the Ukraine conflict is a multifaceted issue that demands urgent attention. Pollution, ecosystem disruption, and long-term ecological degradation are significant challenges that require immediate and sustained efforts. By integrating environmental considerations into conflict resolution and reconstruction processes, we can ensure that the recovery is both environmentally and socially sustainable. The lessons learned from this crisis underscore the importance of protecting our natural environment even in the face of human conflict, highlighting the need for a holistic approach to global security and sustainability.

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Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis. (2024, Jun 17). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/

"Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis." PapersOwl.com , 17 Jun 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/ [Accessed: 18 Jun. 2024]

"Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis." PapersOwl.com, Jun 17, 2024. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/

"Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis," PapersOwl.com , 17-Jun-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/. [Accessed: 18-Jun-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Environmental Fallout: The Invisible War on Nature Amidst the Ukraine Crisis . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/environmental-fallout-the-invisible-war-on-nature-amidst-the-ukraine-crisis/ [Accessed: 18-Jun-2024]

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