essay about sociology and anthropology

What Is The Difference Between Sociology And Anthropology?

Updated: Apr 26, 2023, 5:32pm

If you’re fascinated by human behavior and curious about different cultures, picking a major between sociology and anthropology might be tricky. While both fields delve into the causes of human actions, they’re not entirely similar.

Keep reading to discover the core differences and similarities between sociology and anthropology.

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What is Sociology?

The American Sociological Association defines sociology as “the study of social life, social change and the social causes and consequences of human behavior.”

A sociologist analyzes and attempts to draw conclusions from key social elements of human society, including race, gender, age, social status and social movements.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , some day-to-day responsibilities of a sociologist include:

• Developing research projects
• Collecting data through surveys, interviews and other sources
• Analyzing and drawing conclusions from research data
• Writing reports and research papers
• Advising policymakers on social issues such as education, crime, poverty, health, population and race relations

Common Sociology Focus Areas

Majoring in sociology will entail courses that teach you how to examine and understand human society. However, you may be required to choose a specific concentration to narrow in on your career path in sociology.

Below are some focus areas your sociology curriculum might cover.

Culture and Diversity

This specialization examines the origins and evolutions of various cultures and how aspects of culture influence human behavior in today’s society. It also explores culture as it relates to power imbalance and social status.

Family, Gender and Society

This aspect of sociology examines the intersection between family and gender; how they impact the larger society in relation to marriage, migration, divorce, fertility and mortality. In addition, students learn how family systems and dynamics have evolved.

Law and Society

This track helps aspiring sociologists learn the relationship between laws and social institutions, including what happens when laws aren’t followed.

Medical Sociology

Medical sociology explores the relationship between health and other sociological components like gender, race, age, religion and class. Students learn how these factors influence access to healthcare and humans’ approach to dealing with illness.

What Is Anthropology?

Texas State University’s Department of Anthropology defines anthropology as “the study of people past and present, to deduce what they are, their evolutionary origins and how they differ from one another.”

Anthropology encompasses everything that makes us human, including biological makeup, cultures, linguistics and the evolution of societies.

An anthropologist could work in a university, research organization, national park, historical site, museum, consulting firm or even for the government. Below are some common responsibilities :

• Planning cultural research
• Gathering information through interviews, surveys, documents and observation
• Analyzing human remains and artifacts to uncover patterns about human origins and cultures
• Managing research records
• Preparing reports and presenting key findings

Common Anthropology Focus Areas

Like sociology and many other academic disciplines, anthropology has subfields that students can specialize in to attain their career goals. We’ll examine some of them below.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology explores how people in different societies live and how their cultures have evolved. A cultural anthropologist seeks to understand customs and life patterns in a specific society by living amongst them or through other research methods.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of early human life through the recovery, analysis and interpretation of material remains of ancient human societies. Students learn to use scientific techniques to investigate past societies and how early humans used and changed their environments.

Biological Anthropology

This aspect of anthropology is the study of human evolution over time. It examines the anatomical, genetic and physiological differences and similarities between past and contemporary human populations. This specialization also covers the interaction between biology and culture to explain how humans adapt to different environments.

Linguistic Anthropology

In linguistic anthropology, students examine how people (past and present) communicate across the globe. It considers verbal and non-verbal communication, written text and how they each influence social relations and culture. This specialization also focuses on how specific languages have changed over time.

Similarities Between Sociology and Anthropology

• Both are social sciences
• Both have subfields that integrate with other sciences including criminology, social work, archeology and forensic anthropology
• Both examine human society and human interactions within the society
• Both share similar theories, methods and scientific approaches
• Both reject the idea that human nature is the principal factor in any situation, but instead consider cultural influences and how they impact human nature
• Both seek to understand human behavior

Differences Between Sociology and Anthropology

• Anthropology examines human behavior at a more individualistic level, while sociology examines how social institutions influence groups of people
• Anthropologists seek to understand different cultures, while sociologists apply their findings to solve contemporary social problems
• Anthropology relies on material evidence, while sociology incorporates economics and statistics to understand social groups
• Anthropology emphasizes culture, its physical and social characteristics; sociology focuses on the society, its origin and development
• Anthropologists rely more on qualitative data to draw conclusions while sociologists rely heavily on quantitative data
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Anthropology vs. Sociology: What's the Difference?

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Anthropology is the study of humans and the ways they live. Sociology studies the ways groups of people interact with each other and how their behavior is influenced by social structures, categories (age, gender, sexuality), and institutions.

While both fields study human behavior, the debate between anthropology vs. sociology is a matter of perspectives. Anthropology examines culture more at the micro-level of the individual, which the anthropologist generally takes as an example of the larger culture. In addition, anthropology hones in on the cultural specificities of a given group or community. Sociology, on the other hand, tends to look at the bigger picture, often studying institutions (educational, political, religious), organizations, political movements, and the power relations of different groups with each other.

Key Takeaways: Anthropology vs. Sociology

• Anthropology studies human behavior more at the individual level, while sociology focuses more on group behavior and relations with social structures and institutions.
• Anthropologists conduct research using ethnography (a qualitative research method), while sociologists use both qualitative and quantitative methods.
• The primary goal of anthropology is to understand human diversity and cultural difference, while sociology is more solution-oriented with the goal of fixing social problems through policy.

Definition of Anthropology 

Anthropology studies human diversity. There are four primary sub-fields: archaeology , biological anthropology, cultural anthropology , and linguistic anthropology . Archaeology focuses on the objects humans have made (often thousands of years ago). Biological anthropology examines the ways humans adapt to different environments. Cultural anthropologists are interested in how humans live and make sense of their surroundings, studying their folklore, cuisine, arts, and social norms. Finally, linguistic anthropologists study the ways different cultures communicate. The primary method of research anthropologists utilize is called ethnography or participant observation, which involves in-depth, repeated interactions with people.

A defining feature of anthropology that makes it unlike many other fields is that many researchers study cultures that are not "their own." Thus, people pursuing PhDs in anthropology are required to spend a lengthy period of time (often a year) in a foreign country, in order to immerse themselves in a culture to become knowledgeable enough to write about and analyze it.

Early in the field's history (the late 19th/early 20th centuries), anthropologists were almost all Europeans or Americans who conducted research in what they considered to be "primitive" societies that they believed were "untouched" by western influence. Because of this mindset, the field has long been critiqued for its colonialist, condescending attitude toward non-western people and its inaccurate representations of their cultures; for example, early anthropologists often wrote about African cultures as static and unchanging, which suggested that Africans could never be modern and that their culture did not undergo change, as western cultures do. In the late 20th century, anthropologists like James Clifford and George Marcus addressed these misrepresentations, suggesting that ethnographers be more aware of and upfront about the unequal power relations between themselves and their research subjects.

Definition of Sociology 

Sociology has several principal tenets: individuals belong to groups, which influence their behavior; groups have characteristics independent of their members (i.e., the whole is larger than the sum of its parts); and sociology focuses on patterns of behavior among groups (as defined by gender, race, class, sexual orientation, etc.). Sociological research falls into several large areas , including globalization, race and ethnicity, consumption, family, social inequality, demography, health, work, education, and religion.

While ethnography was initially associated with anthropology, many sociologists also do ethnography, which is a qualitative research method. However, sociologists tend to do more quantitative research —studying large data sets, like surveys—than anthropologists. In addition, sociology is more concerned with hierarchical or unequal power relations between groups of people and/or institutions. Sociologists still tend to study "their own" societies—i.e., the U.S. and Europe—more than those of non-western countries, although contemporary sociologists conduct research all over the world.

Finally, an important distinction between anthropology and sociology is that the former's goal is to understand human diversity and cultural differences, while the latter is more solution-oriented with the goal of fixing social problems through policy.

Anthropology majors pursue a wide variety of careers, as do sociology students. Either of these degrees can lead to a career as a teacher, public sector employee, or academic. Students who major in sociology often go on to work at non-profit or governmental organizations and the degree can be a stepping stone to a career in politics, public administration, or law. While the corporate sector is less common for sociology majors, some anthropology students find work conducting market research.

Graduate school is also a common trajectory for both anthropology and sociology majors. Those who complete a PhD often have the goal of becoming professors and teaching at the college level. However, jobs in academia are scarce, and over half of people with a PhD in anthropology work outside of academia . Non-academic careers for anthropologists include public sector research at large, global organizations like the World Bank or UNESCO, at cultural institutions like the Smithsonian, or working as freelance research consultants. Sociologists who have a PhD can work as analysts in any number of public policy organizations, or as demographers, non-profit administrators, or research consultants.

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Sociology vs Anthropology: 10 Similarities and Differences

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Anthropology and sociology are both social sciences fields that focus on understanding human behavior, societies, and cultures.

While anthropology focuses on rich and detailed explorations of cultures in the past and present, sociology typically focuses specifically on the social structures of contemporary societies, with a modern emphasis on injustices and social stratification.

Here are two simple definitions:

• Anthropology is the study of human beings in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture (Bernard, 2017; Delaney, 2017). It’s often characterized by extremely detailed and nuanced fieldwork.
• Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture (Park & Burgess, 2019; Tomley et al., 2019).

While these two fields share many similarities, they also have unique elements as a result of their individual foci. However, because each field is so extensive, each of the following examples have obvious exceptions, and the overlaps are significant. In fact, the main difference between the two is their traditions and the central debates within the fields, as I’ll explain as we go.

Anthropology vs Sociology

Anthropology.

Anthropology can be understood as the systematic and scientific study of humans, their evolution, culture, beliefs, and social interactions (Pountney & Maric, 2021).

The term is derived etymologically from Greek, ‘Anthropos’ representing ‘human’ and ‘logy’ implying ‘study’.

It can be viewed as the study of humans in totality, encompassing past, present, and future.

Anthropology is a discipline of extensive scope. It considers humankind from a variety of perspectives: biological, social, cultural, and linguistic, among others.

It believes that the intersection of varying elements of human experiences, including but not limited to society, biology, language, and culture, results in a complex interconnected network (Ingold, 2018).

The discipline not just limits itself to understanding human behavior or tracing their evolution, but expands to include cultural practices, beliefs, societal norms, and languages, amongst the numerous other facets of human societies and cultures (Nanda & Warms, 2019).

Features of anthropology include:

• Study of Human Life: Anthropology strives to examine every aspect of a human being – the way one speaks, dresses, eats, interacts, and thinks (Ingold, 2018). It appreciates humanity in its entirety without focusing on an isolated attribute or specialty.
• Participant Observation: Participant observation involves immersing oneself in the culture or society being studied, offering an intimate understanding of the given subject (Bernard, 2017; Nanda & Warms, 2019). To illustrate, cultural anthropologists often live within communities, adopting their lifestyle to fully understand their customs and norms.
• Comparative Method: This analysis of societies and cultures, comparing one with another, aids in drawing out similarities and variances in human experiences across geographical regions (Pountney & Maric, 2021). For instance, comparing marriage customs across different cultures helps identify their unique characteristics as well as common themes.
• Qualitative Focus: Anthropology is well known for its qualitative research methods , and many of the in-depth qualitative research methodologies, like ethnography and thick description, come straight from anthropological research methods (Bernard, 2017).
• Cross-Disciplinarity and Eclecticism: Anthropology does not focus solely on human culture or societal forms; it interlinks different disciplines like biology, geography, history, and linguistics to present a comprehensive picture of human evolution and society (Bernard, 2017).

Sociology is the scientific examination of behavior, interactions, and collective phenomena within social groups (Little, 2016; Park & Burgess, 2019).

It primarily addresses the analysis of various societal elements such as social behavior , culture, and structure.

Early sociologists focused on social structures and institutions , ranging from the family unit to major institutions such as government bodies, education, and religion, and examined how they helped hold together cohesive societies. Later, conflict theorists pivoted to exploring the power structures inherent in social institutions . Their concern was with how societies distributed privileges and marginalized others (Park & Burgess, 2019; Tomley et al., 2019).

Subsequent sociologists like Max Weber introduced the sociological paradigm of symbolic interactionism , which studies the ways language, symbols, and everyday social interactions structured society and identities.

The main practical implication of sociology is that it gives policy makers a scientific view into how their policies impact their societies. At its best, it gives societies a scientific basis for developing equitable social policies (Plummer, 2021; Hickey & Thompson, 2016).

Features of sociology include:

• Study of Societies: While anthropology may delve deeper into holistic features of ancient and modern cultures, sociology tends to keep its eye on societies and how they are formed.
• Contemporary Focus: Sociology focuses more on modern societies, studying complex social structures such as governments, economies, and families (Tomley et al., 2019).
• Policy Focus: If we were to look at a key outcome of sociological analysis, we would likely identify its impact on policy and politics. This cannot be said to the same extent about anthropology (Little, 2016).
• Clear Theoretical Traditions: A key difference between anthropology and sociology is their theoretical traditions. Sociology emerges from three key paradigms: structural-functionalism , conflict theory , and symbolic interactionism . Anthropology tends to be far more eclectic, borrowing significantly from the humanities .
• Critical Approach: Lastly, sociology is characterized by its critical approach (Park & Burgess, 2019). It does not simply accept societal norms, but rather questions them. In doing so, it encourages individuals to break free from conventional thinking and promotes a broader, more critical view of the world around us.

Sociology and Anthropology Similarities and Differences

Similarities between anthropology and sociology:.

• Study human societies and behavior: Both fields consider how societies form, function, and evolve over time (Panopio & Rolda, 2007). They explore how individuals and groups interact within these societies and the implications of these interactions. In addition, both anthropology and sociology scrutinize various societal roles, statuses, and shared behaviors, and the impact these have on human relations, societal dynamics, and social change (Park & Burgess, 2019).
• Use both qualitative and quantitative methods: These social sciences approach their subjects of study with a mix of methods. Qualitative research, involving detailed observations, interviews, and document analysis, allows anthropologists and sociologists to gain profound insights into human and social behavior. On the other hand, quantitative approaches, like surveys and statistical analyses, measure the breadth of social phenomena and patterns of human behavior (Panopio & Rolda, 2007).
• Analyze culture and social structures: Both anthropology and sociology delve deeply into the study of culture, examining customs, rituals, norms, and the social order that govern societies. Furthermore, they explore how these cultural factors shape, and are shaped by, the structures and systems of societies, with particular interest in power dynamics, role differentiation, and the development of social institutions (Pountney & Maric, 2021). 
• Interested in norms, values, and beliefs: Anthropologists and sociologists show considerable interest in understanding norms (the accepted behaviors), values (what’s deemed important in a society), and beliefs (shared perspectives about the world). Through their lens, these social constructs are not rigid , but rather dynamic and adaptive, changing across time, space, and cultures (Panopio & Rolda, 2007).
• Both disciplines consider individual and collective behaviors: Anthropology and sociology offer unique insights into both the individual’s behavior and collective actions within societies (Panopio & Rolda, 2007). They endeavor to unravel the profound interconnections between personal choices and social contexts while examining the span from individual micro-level behavior to the behavior of larger social aggregates.

Differences Between Anthropology and Sociology:

• Sociology focuses on modern societies: Sociology predominantly centers around contemporary societies, exploring current societal structures, cultural practices, and social behaviors (Plummer, 2021). It also examines the impact of modern institutions like the government, education, and religion have on societies. Emphasis is given to finding solutions to modern-day social issues , such as inequality, discrimination, and conflict.
• Anthropology studies past and present: Anthropology is unique in its propensity to analyze human societies across different time-frames (Nanda & Warms, 2019). It encompasses studying early human societies to understand the evolution of cultural systems, alongside examining contemporary societies. Its focus is broader, spanning the breadth of human existence, offering a long-term perspective on cultural, social, and biological changes.
• Sociology often uses statistical analysis: Sociology frequently incorporates empirical methods and extensive statistical analysis in its research (Thompson, Hickey & Thompson, 2016). Using rigorous data analysis , sociology aims at extrapolating broader tendencies and generalizable patterns from individual cases to better understand social structures, norms, and behaviors on a macro scale.
• Anthropology relies heavily on fieldwork: Anthropology distinguishes itself through its strong emphasis on intensive fieldwork and participant observation (Delaney, 2017). Anthropologists often immerse themselves in cultures and societies under study, living with local communities to get an in-depth perspective and understanding of their customs, practices, and ways of life.
• Anthropology includes biological and archaeological subfields: Anthropology goes beyond just studying human societies and culture to include biological anthropology, focusing on the evolutionary aspects of humans and their ancestors, and archaeology, that uncovers past societies and their artifacts (Bernard, 2017; Delaney, 2017; Pountney & Maric, 2021). This broad reach, encompassing biology and the past, adds a unique dimension to anthropology.

The main distinguishing difference between sociology and anthropology is in their traditions: anthropology has a rich tradition of detailed qualitative fieldwork, and the comparative study of cultures, past and present.

By contrast, sociology has a strong tradition of debating social structures, especially as demonstrated in the ongoing sociological debate about the role of social institutions ( functionalism vs conflict theory ) and between structure and agency (functionalism and conflict theory vs symbolic interactionism).

Bernard, H. R. (2017). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . London: Rowman & Littlefield.

Delaney, C. (2017). Investigating culture: An experiential introduction to anthropology . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Ingold, T. (2018). Anthropology: Why it matters . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Little, W. (2016). Introduction to sociology . Vancouver; BCcampus.

Nanda, S., & Warms, R. L. (2019). Cultural anthropology . London: Sage Publications.

Panopio, I. S., & Rolda, R. S. (2007). Society & Culture . Goodwill Trading Co., Inc..

Park, R. E., & Burgess, E. W. (2019). Introduction to the Science of Sociology . Los Angeles: Good Press.

Plummer, K. (2021). Sociology: the basics . New York: Routledge.

Pountney, L., & Marić, T. (2021). Introducing anthropology: what makes us human? . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Thompson, W. E., Hickey, J. V., & Thompson, M. L. (2016). Society in focus: An introduction to sociology . London: Rowman & Littlefield.

Tomley, S., Hobbs, M., Todd, M. & Weeks, M. (2019) The Sociology Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained. London: DK Publishing.

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ANTHROPOLOGY vs SOCIOLOGY: DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

Synopsis: Although the two domains are closely related to each other, Sociology and Anthropology are two distinct fields of study. Differences that exist between the two disciplines provide them such distinction from one another. At the same time, both the subjects have much in common. This article explores the two areas of Anthropology and Sociology, their differences and similarities, and possible careers in each sphere.

Often termed the ‘science of humanity’ (Feeley-Harnik et al., 2020), Anthropology is the discipline that engages in the study of humankind. In simple words, Anthropology studies every aspect of human life. To go into a little more detail, the study of Anthropology involves the study of biological science or life science of humans, the behaviors and actions of people, and all that their cultures and societies encompass. This analysis is not limited only to the present world–Anthropologists are also concerned with matters of the past i.e., the history and evolution of humanity and the life of human beings in the past. Anthropology falls under the broader domain of Social Sciences.

Anthropology was established as a field of study primarily in Europe and North America in 1950. The process of studying it, however, had already commenced and had been underway by the 1860s. Charles Darwin’s theories in his books ‘The Origin of Species’ published in 1859 and ‘The Descent of Man’ published in 1871, along with important discoveries of fossils and remnants of previous humans, fueled the interest in examining humanity. Richard Francis Burton, James Hunt, Edward Burnett Tylor, and Alfred Tylor emerged as the pioneers of the discipline, followed by James George Frazer, Rudolph Virchow, and later by Franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, and Margaret Mead. Several associations concentrated on the development of the subject matter were also established.

The comprehensiveness of anthropology i.e., the manner in which it incorporates within itself the several and varied aspects of human life renders it important to divide anthropology into specific branches which can focus on each feature of humankind separately. As a result, several subdivisions have emerged over the years within the area of study. They are: 

Another type, World anthropology, can also be included in the mix.

Analysis of societies and humankind dates far back in history. Some known people who engaged in such analysis were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Although the word was coined by Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, French philosopher Auguste Comte was the first to use ‘Sociology’ and define it. Although Sociology as a discipline was established much after his death, Karl Marx is considered a pioneer figure and classical thinker of the field of study. Herbert Spencer, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, Emile Durkheim, George Herbert Mead, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman are other early sociologists. Sociology as an academic discipline was developed between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modern sociologists following these pioneers include C. Wright Mills, Michel Foucault, Anthony Giddens, Zygmunt Bauman, and Peter L. Berger.

There are three primary theories in Sociology that are used to examine societies and their different facets: Structural Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Symbolic Interactionism. Accordingly, the levels of analysis in sociology are divided into two categories: micro and macro. Any aspect of human societies can be explored through either one or a mix of all three theoretical perspectives in Sociology.

Differences between Anthropology and Sociology :

We can now arrive at the scope of these subjects, or the level of study of each of the disciplines.  Anthropology  has a micro-level focus, i.e., it studies and addresses micro-level aspects of humankind. In other words, Anthropology studies individuals, and specific families, cultures, and communities. Anthropologists explore how individual units interact with the larger social aspects.  Sociology , on the other hand, uses a macro-level approach to the study of humankind. It studies the broader concepts of societies and institutions. Sociologists examine how the wide-ranging society and various social facets within it affect the individual units. To put it otherwise, Sociology uses a top-down approach (from society to individual) while Anthropology uses a bottom-up approach (from individual to society).

Next, we can examine the basis of each field of study.  Sociology  originated from an interest in understanding the social phenomenon, and its focus on industrialized societies of the West was a key feature. These societies were the ones that were considered the so-called ‘modern’ societies. Hence, Sociology originated as an area of interest in Western societies, and the people who pursued it studied, in essence, the societies of their own. Contemporary sociological practice, however, has broadened its scope.  Anthropology  originated in Western countries, but the focus of the study was the ‘outside’ world. Anthropologists considered those societies which were not Western and were not affected by Western influences to be ‘primitive’. The subject, therefore, started from an interest to study the so-called ‘exotic species’ of human beings which had characteristics different from their own. Due to its origins and focus, the discipline of Anthropology has faced severe criticisms, and current anthropological undertakings have widened their base as well.

The methodology applied by both disciplines in their respective domains of study also varies. Anthropology primarily uses a more qualitative approach because it focuses on the micro-level analysis. Anthropologists are usually deeply involved in the community and practices which they aim to study. It is more field-based, utilizing techniques such as participant observation , material collection directly from the sources (such as in archaeology), etc. The sample sizes are smaller and more local. Sociology, being a macro-level form of analysis, tends to look at the bigger picture, and therefore engages a more quantitative model. The information databases are larger and more widespread. Analysis of questionnaires, surveys, etc. is usually involved in Sociology. The sample sizes are much larger and more expansive.

Similarities between Sociology and Anthropology :

Career opportunities :.

Despite the similarities between the two, Sociology and Anthropology are offered as different subjects of interest in educational institutions today. Both Sociology and Anthropology students have a broad range of career options from which they can choose. Even some career opportunities for students of Anthropology and Sociology are similar. Sociology students can go into Social Services (social work, administration), Teaching (any level), Publishing (writing, research), Law (criminal justice), Community Services (advocacy, non-profits), Business (public relations, human resources), and such. Anthropology students also have access to these careers, with additional prospects in those fields where knowledge in natural science (specifically life science or Biology) can be of importance (such as forensics).

Baines, K. (2015, November 3). What is the difference between anthropology and sociology? Cool Anthropology. https://www.coolanthropology.com/ask-a-cool-anthropologist/what-is-the-difference-between

Ifie, C. (2013). What careers are available for a BA in sociology? Education – Seattle PI. https://education.seattlepi.com/careers-available-ba-sociology-1145.html

Jeganathan, P., Spencer, J. R., Robotham, D. K., Hopkins, N. S., Nicholas, R. W., Feeley-Harnik, G., Seeger, A., Östör, Á., Kuper, A. J., Varenne, H., Aronoff, M. J., Keyes, C. F., Smith, E. A., Fernandez, J. W., Hanchett, S. L., Kolata, A. L., Tuttle, R. H., Lomnitz, C., Schildkrout, E., . . . Hannerz, U. (2020, December 9). Anthropology. Encyclopedia Britannica.       https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology

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• Relationship between Anthropology and Sociology
• Last Updated: Jun 3, 2023

Anthropology and sociology rely on social life and cultural research to fully comprehend the causes and effects of human behavior. The study of sociology and anthropology focuses on the traditional cultures of both Western and non-Western civilisations , as well as the modern, industrial society. They investigate the effect of social institutions , including religion, family, and education, on people’s attitudes, actions, and chances of living happy lives. They also focus on the effect of culture on social structures , including families, organizations, and communities.

Approaches of Sociology and anthropology

Sociology and anthropology employ both scientific and humanistic approaches to examine society . Researchers in the fields of sociology and anthropology study a broad variety of topics and draw on many theoretical stances, including those related to culture, socialization, deviance, inequality, health and sickness, family structures, social change, and connections between races and ethnic groups.

Segmental thinking still exists in academic circles when curricula are being made. Many people fail to recognize the fact that the universe in which we live is a unified whole and the various disciplines are merely different approaches to this totality. There is even doubt concerning the close relationship between cultural anthropology and sociology. A recent article brings out the fact that the relationship is not entirely understood by some of the specialists in these two fields.’ The purpose of this discussion is to compare the phenomena throughout these two fields of study. An analysis of the phenomena in these two disciplines reveals unity throughout-biologically, culturally, and from the standpoint of human nature. The phenomena are identical in a broad connotative sense. They vary only as differentiations in the same category. In each of the three realms of the existence of all people-the biological, the cultural, and the human nature-the phenomena had a common origin and were produced in the same way. In each area there is a universal common denominator of interactive factors as the analysis will show. Furthermore, the same scientific laws are equally valid and the research methods in each of these three aspects of life can be universally the same. Any law or unifying principle established either by a sociologist or by an anthropologist would have universal application 

Biological Unity  in Anthropology and sociology 

People studied by the anthropologist belong to the same genus and species as those studied by the sociologist. They were produced in the biological process in the same way, through the interaction of the two parent cells, the sperm cell of the male and the ovum of the female. The individuals of all groups can freely interbreed and produce fertile children. Fertile children have been produced through the mating of the most extreme types of whites and Negroes. Had they not belonged to the same species, sterility in the offspring would have resulted. Modern science has revealed the fact that all human blood is the same whether it comes from the “purest Aryan” or from the African pygmy.

There are four blood types found among all human divisions. Blood plasma, no matter what may be its origin, can be used to save the life of any person. The differences between groups in the world are found in nonessentials-pigmentation, hair texture, and other external characteristics. Throughout this species, there is an organic heritage that is truly common. Undefined, dynamic, organic processes possess the same human potentialities. These are random vocalization; undefined intellectual and emotional processes; undefined hunger, sex and thirst processes; and the undefined processes connected with the senses.

The random vocalizations of any newborn can become any language; the intellectual and emotional processes lend themselves to development in any culture; the sex and thirst processes do not require a particular culture. They can be accommodated by any food-habit system, and they can be accommodated by any culture. Undefined processes connected with the senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell have no quality that demands any specific social heritage in anthropology and sociology.

 The newborn anywhere in the world is an unbiased candidate for human nature that can be developed in any culture. In other words, he is equipped to achieve a life organization in any social milieu. These undefined, organic potentialities for human nature provide a universal common denominator of interactive factors. Laws concerning these potentialities, before they are defined or after they are defined and integrated into a life an organization that would benefit everyone. If the neonates in groups were swapped with the babies in groups that anthropologists saw,

The study of human nature and society by sociologists would not bring about change. Though it would be a cultural problem rather than a biological one, how society perceives color differences would have an effect. Culture has a minor impact on biological potential. They may fit with any culture. Because of its variegated population, which includes African Americans, Native Americans, Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, and immigrants from every continent in Europe, the United States is a great case study for this topic.

Oneness of Creation Anthropology and sociology 

The four interrelated processes of astronomy, geology, biology, and society generated the universe in which we live. One of these techniques was applied to manufacture everything in the universe. The social process is how all civilizations came to be, even as people altered these four processes and their impacts one of these techniques was applied to manufacture everything in the universe. The social process is how all civilizations came to be, even as people altered these four processes and their impacts. The implications are always the same: society’s structure and human nature. In one example, the changes may be mystical and non-scientific, while in another, they may be more or less scientific.

By studying each culture or aspect of each civilization, one can learn about human nature and society structure. Thus, the basic ingredient that unites all civilizations is composed of these two intertwined components. These two components are always present simultaneously and are similar in all cases from a functional standpoint.

Human nature, which contains attitudes, ideas, interests, needs, ideologies, and more, is the subjective aspect of civilization that works as an all-inclusive common denominator. Social organization covers both aspects inherited from nature and items developed for the development and expression of human nature.Every culture on earth is basically a unique manner in which people interact and how society is developed; it is an individual result of how society runs. All cultures have a similar root in social interaction for their development, preservation, and alteration.

The social process is how humans engage with one another on a cultural level. All human groups, even the most “primitive” individuals, the majority in cultural life, and the source populations for anthropologists and sociologists, are subject to the same scientific principles.

Man’s Universal Nature in Anthropology and sociology 

Every infant in society has the ability to develop into a person. He lacks human nature and is uncontaminated by civilization. Gaining human nature and a world in which to live are difficult for him. This is brought on by a normal process.

By virtue of their experiences, concepts, and points of view, infants learn about the world. The picked item permeates his world, and the attitude gets a life of its own.

In many regards, the phenomenon is akin to human nature once it has been acquired. It integrates cultures, beliefs, hobbies, and other things everywhere. It is done by using the same innate human potentialities as were stated in the paragraph on this page on “biological oneness.” These include actions tied to the senses, mental and emotional processes, behaviors related to hunger, thirst, and sex, as well as meaningless vocalizations. The interaction between these potentialities and other potentialities in social life culminates in human nature. Human nature can only grow in this manner in  anthropology and sociology.

Human nature becomes vital in any coming adjustment when the potential in these two heritages has interacted and been accomplished. As a consequence, each work is imbued with the person’s biological, social, and human essence. He is taking everything in in a way that only he can because no one else will ever have the same experience.

Each person’s social and biological inheritance, human character, and unique experiences are the universal common denominator seen in their connections with others in every culture. They are constantly engaged as he matures through each stage of his human nature and acquires a world to live in. Every person from every culture had at that time evolved into a social, organic, and mental oneness. Only in the context of the four dimensions of his existence that were previously outlined can he be comprehended. As a consequence, there is a unifying framework for assessing everyone while taking into consideration their particular experiences, social and biological histories, and human nature in anthropology and sociology.

These four characteristics are experiences as well as interactive features. Every person has an influence on the structural component of his social legacy. Similarly, his training in organic chemistry. Its interruptions, in particular, are an attitude-based experience. In addition, the individual is continually responding to human nature and his own views.

Ideas, hobbies, and initiatives that try to develop human nature Similar to this, the individual constantly revisits his separate experiences in his imagination, strengthening the attitudes, wants, etc. that he first felt as a result of them. Everyone has the same potential in their nature, regardless of where they reside. Ideas from mental or social psychology that are true in one scenario are also true in another.

Limitation of sociology

Bringing up societal issues while finding significance Sociologist Berger thinks that skepticism is a vital part of social study. This is a critical beginning step if sociology is to be effective.  According to Berger, the objective of sociology is to offer innovative interpretations of conventional facts, question conventional wisdom, and contribute to the corpus of knowledge beyond what can be gathered through empirical inquiry.

So how do we receive the knowledge that sociology aims to provide? How can we transcend beyond the accumulated knowledge of many people’s experiences to extend our grasp of social life? How can we move beyond what is previously known? Sociologist Asplund elaborates on the tiny but important difference between reporting a social occurrence and problematizing the same thing in order to comprehend the art of researching social phenomena. According to me, this assertion is a cornerstone of sociology. One sort of study entails in-depth analyses of particular events in anthropology and sociology. A synopsis of its occurrence and any relevant connections may also be included in descriptions. Asplund makes the argument that such a descriptive analysis is worthless or what we may refer to as a-theoretical without saying that such an analytical framework is erroneous or senseless. Even the most extensive explanation will fall short of conveying the occurrences properly. Even though it will bring us comfort knowing we comprehend the present conditions sufficiently, it won’t have made it clear what it signifies.

In order to regard a phenomenon as anything, an analysis that strives to comprehend its meaning would try out alternative interpretations. A descriptive investigation merely wants one piece of data, while a focus on meaning seeks to grasp the events at a deeper level. The approach for accomplishing this purpose is to build a flexible style of seeing rather than gathering a rising and copious amount of correct and detailed knowledge. To effectively appreciate a social phenomenon, one must be able to embrace a multiplicity of views and explanatory models.

Aspect blindness of Anthropology and Sociology 

“Aspectblindness” is how Asplund refers to the lack of certain talents. Theories are vital because they educate us about a variety of facets of reality, even though we should be cautious that they may not completely match reality. Reality may be perceived via comparison with abstractions. This is the right way to put ideas to use, and this is what “seeing something as something” genuinely entails. Since they are typically not formed on empirical generalizations, interpretations that seek the significance or meaning of a phenomenon do not lend themselves to verifications. Similar to Weber’s ideal-types, these interpretations are exaggerated, although they are nevertheless important as they aid to make a message.

But resolving all the questions about a phenomenon is merely one part in the research process. What Asplund refers to as “greediness” reinforces the argument for prioritizing meaning over presentation. Analyses that depend on descriptions generated from statistical or ethnographic data aren’t always inappropriate in  anthropology and sociology. However, if the technique is concluded with a well-organized presentation of the data’s conclusions, the sociological investigation still falls short. Even though such narratives offer vital information regarding the existence and history of a certain phenomenon, Asplund argues that the sociologist must continue the investigation by asking, “What does this mean? ” The capacity to problematize data—ask questions about the application of the collected data—and the capability to gather data must be balanced (using qualitative or quantitative methods)

Is research on development “pointless” In Anthropology and Sociology ?

What link does this issue have to an examination of the limits of sociology with respect to development studies? Asplund’s warning regarding data gluttony. A lack of social curiosity that lifts the study beyond a straightforward description is especially crucial in the context of development studies research.

It may not be all that weird to suppose that research undertaken in connection with development initiatives is driven by a preconceived purpose. After all, the purpose of these studies is to analyze sustainability, follow current operations, and measure the efficiency of particular activities. But queries that masquerade as “academic research” frequently have aspects in common with project-related inquiries. Studies on development encompass research that is directly relevant to development in praxis as well as expectations that have arisen to underline moral obligations in connection to the issue being researched. These commitments typically prioritize policy and practice recommendations over sociological concerns about the significance of social events.According to Ferguson, the majority of development literature reflects this, with an emphasis on what goes wrong with development initiatives, why it goes wrong, and how it may be remedied.

In his research of the literature on development, he noticed that writers considered development as a large joint effort to create change, and works from this perspective are designed to offer readers a better working environment. Similar phrases like “manageability” and “social engineering” are used by the authors van Ufford, Giri, and Mosse  to characterize the nature of development research and practices. Once again, the impulse to “fix things” takes priority over an interest in grasping the complexity and illogic of social events.

Donations have a big influence in the case of Bangladesh while looking in comparison with  Anthropology and Sociology.

The major purpose of research initiatives is to acquire knowledge for development and policy activities. Research is commonly performed in Bangladeshi literature with the purpose of directly impacting decision-making processes Long-term or scholarly viewpoints are infrequently employed when conducting research, and donor interests dictate the agenda, which is primarily to blame. According to van Schendel and Westergaard, funders are “interested in outcomes that may rapidly be fed into the management of development operations”

The foundation for analysis and empirical study is thus already constructed, and the data collected during investigations is simply added to this already-existing framework. Though terms like gender, livelihoods, the hard core poor, and sustainability are simple to grasp, their utility in research is typically limited to  anthropology and sociology. They don’t allow for a complete and inquisitive assessment; rather, they are appended to an already-existing operating order. According to Sarah White, writings on gender problems that are commonly backed by foreign assistance present facts rather than views. She contends that positivism, rather than a hermeneutic approach designed to comprehend social processes and social change, characterizes development research in general, not simply that associated with gender.

Publication foci in Anthropology and Sociology.

The majority of publications on empowerment and engagement in development concentrate on propagating these ideals. The analysis is based on the ideas that management- and problem-solving approaches are what give analyzes their unique flavor, and that participation can and should be made to work.Although the literature includes sharp and critical evaluations of participation, the criticism is typically emphasized in order to strengthen methods and definitions. These arguments, which strive to define how participation should be employed, have led to books that go into greater depth on the ideas and procedures associated with participatory tactics. In other words, the studies lack a critical viewpoint that will challenge the established wisdom, in this example, that involvement in development would lead to the democratic empowerment of the impoverished, which Berger considers vital to sociology. The studies also demonstrate a predisposition for prolonged explanations and fail to answer Asplund’s critical question, “What does this mean?” with regard to the obtained data.

Although these judgements are illogical and non-theoretical, they still have some utility. However, by disputing what is usually assumed, namely that participation leads to the empowerment of the impoverished and universal democracy, they may become socially relevant. Behind the rhetoric of involvement in development, standard social theories regarding how people should engage in democracy incorporate opposing concepts

These theories investigate, among other things, the issue of encouraging people’s freedom of speech while simultaneously forcing them to accept decisions that may limit their own freedom and opinions held by a majority that are in contrast to their own. Sociologically speaking, it may also be helpful in this situation to understand the social psychology components of group decision-making, which show that fear of exclusion may lead us to accept recommendations that do not align with our own opinions about what is the best solution to a problem.

We may be able to better comprehend the primary issues driving people’s engagement in development by employing alternative theoretical insights gained in other study fields.

They show an underlying complexity that is difficult to address from a managerial perspective. Instead of only concentrating on how they can be handled technically, a focus on their complexity as social phenomena offers a more thorough understanding. much room for analysis. Social skepticism may be applied in this fashion to investigate both common knowledge and our personal beliefs. By studying the facts we already consider to be true, we may better appreciate the core problems surrounding participation and start to view it as more of a social phenomenon than merely a development plan restricted by negative social dynamics or physical limits. Discussions on empowerment and involvement in development NGOs tend to emphasize a variety of attributes

Anthropology and Sociology

Literature often delivers significant perspectives that involve historical information and background details about NGOs. Critical appraisals of the regional, national, and international political and economic conditions in which NGOs operate are equally crucial. These descriptions, regrettably, are confined in that they only boost our ability to perceive obstacles; they do not, nevertheless, improve our capacity to understand them more thoroughly, to use Asplund’s very harsh word once again. The arguments are further complicated by the fact that discussions of development NGOs are based on a certain purpose, one that encourages the involvement of NGOs as partners and implies the fulfillment of the ideal, i.e., NGOs motivated by altruism and committed to solidarity. One example is the emphasis on expanding organizational management, people issues, and financial considerations in order to develop the necessary attitudes, as seen in both the literature and the sheer number of management courses provided to NGOs. 

This is also represented in efforts to identify and differentiate the bad actors from the true and legitimate NGOs, as well as the dependency on external reasons or a lack of introspective analysis as components undermining the actual ideals of NGOs in NGO literature. This provides a venue for conversations that are mostly concerned with generating practical answers to challenges that hinder NGOs from accomplishing their declared purposes and objectives in anthropology and sociology. According to David Lewis, the literature is as follows: Despite being sometimes critical of the existing focus on NGOs, its tone usually recognises and supports NGOs’ capacity to positively impact the development process

Comparing objectives of Anthropology and Sociology.

A sociological research project that is driven by goals or ideological views of how things should be may suffer substantial implications because it runs the danger of neglecting a comprehensive examination of the assumptions that underlie these ideals. The philosophy given is related to the principles and aspects of development NGOs.

 Examining these presumptions entails analyzing compassion’s ethical difficulties. Is altruism real or not? What occurs when conduct is related to moral principles? These studies lead us down a different route than others that are more anchored in reality and concerned with how we may restore the original NGO ethos in a flourishing but unethically troubled sector. social engineer, revolutionary leader, or undercover investigator?

A review of sociology’s contributions would be unsatisfactory without taking into account the fact that there are plainly diverse perspectives on the role that a sociologist should undertake. Since sociology’s origins as a subject of academic study, the question has been under dispute. A sociologist should function as a social architect, an advocate for the weak, and an academic who should be as removed from politics or any other direct endeavor to make social change in society as is practical, according to Durkheim, Marx, and Weber. Berger’s embrace of skepticism as an essential component of sociology reflects his understanding of the function of the sociologist. According to Berger, a sociologist’s major purpose should be to comprehend society. This makes it unlawful to carry out physical chores, including writing 633 words.

Engage in the genuine process of addressing problems. Even though a social worker’s research topic and, for example, a sociologist’s may initially seem to be similar, their respective goals differ because the social worker is attempting to address a societal issue (such as the effects or repercussions of high blood pressure) (for example, the repercussions of high blood pressure or the impacts of high blood pressure) , whereas a sociologist examines social issues (such as the institution of marriage) (such as the institution of marriage). They, therefore, execute diverse duties as a result.

 According to Berger, any objective of retaining true social commitments should be set on hold in favor of making an attempt to conceptualize and explain sociological issues or social realities. Berger agrees with Max Weber’s stance, which is similar, that sociology should not impose its own moral standards on society. Although Weber used the word “value-free,” it doesn’t appear that he is sustaining the concept that the researcher should be unbiased and objective. Instead, I regard Berger’s advice that the researcher adopts a skepticism toward the material and arguments offered to her, take into account her personal preconceptions, and abstains from functioning as a social engineer as being comparable to his demand for a value-free social science. Sociologists are not compelled to suggest solutions to societal difficulties. However, practitioners may very well exploit the material offered by sociology to enhance their understanding of these difficulties before seeking to tackle social concerns.

Methodological Approaches of Anthropology and Sociology .

As a consequence, and quite properly, sociologists have come under attack for their lack of empathy and compassion. As was previously noted, in response to this criticism, new methodological approaches such as action research, ethnomethodology, and emotionalism have been established. This presents the difficulty of how to display empathy and attention to reality and the body of research. Simply asserting that skepticism is a vital component of sociology does not insulate one from a lack of empathy for the subjects of one’s study or a lack of responsibility for the discipline’s purpose of gaining a thorough understanding of social processes. In the realm of social science, “a skeptical attitude” may be interpreted in a variety of different ways. Kuhn anticipated obedience to the game’s rules, such as those directing research design, analysis, and presentation, as well as adherence to certain concepts and theories of the prevailing paradigm

On the other hand, Feyerabend maintained that the rogue scientist was vital to the advancement of science. He finds that “insistence on the norms would not have improved situations; it would have prevented practise” after reviewing historical instances of how new information has been acquired by scientific effort Feyerabend feels that research should be defined by skepticism and questioning of hypotheses and conceptions rather than having a duty to affirm what is already known. According to Asplund, while inventiveness and breaking convention are typically commended in the present academic milieu, it might be tougher to win over the academic community.

Robert Chambers, a well-known social scientist who has contributed to development studies, appears to have a different perspective on this, claiming that social science is fundamentally all about uncovering defects and delivering critical assessments. But it doesn’t seem like the uncertainty Chambers is talking to is the creative and enlivening variety, which is a sign of liberating oneself from constraining norms and duties. Chambers thinks that pessimism has emerged from the acceptance of rural development and development solutions. However, when skepticism is the norm, it may also be misleading as it may serve special objectives related to the researcher’s comfort and advancement at the price of the purposes of science.

Even though the study topics of a sociologist and, for instance, a social worker may initially appear to be similar, their respective aims are different, as the social worker intends to solve a societal issue (for example, the repercussions of high blood pressure or the impacts of high blood pressure).

Issues in Anthropology and Sociology.

Sociologists analyze societal issues, such as the institution of marriage and the prevalence of marriage. As a result, they carry out distinct tasks. According to Berger, the ambition of conceptualizing and analyzing sociological subjects or social realities should begin before any desire to carry out meaningful societal acts. Berger has the same position as Max Weber, that sociology should not impose its own moral principles on society. Weber used the phrase “value-free,” but this does not, in my opinion, indicate that Weber is in favor of the premise that the researcher should be unbiased and neutral. Instead, I relate his plea for a social science devoid of values to Berger’s exhortation to the researcher to adopt a skepticism toward the facts and arguments provided to her, account for her own preconceptions, and stop working as a social engineer. Sociologists are not expected to give solutions to societal concerns. However, practitioners may very well leverage the sociology-produced material to expand their awareness of these constraints before attempting to tackle social issues.

The rationale behind such a position, along with the assertions made by sociology that the knowledge it offers is something more than an understanding and interpretation held by the average citizen, may give the impression that the sociologist is a “self-appointed superior man” with the authority to challenge people’s interpretations of their own lives as well as a “cold manipulator of men” who is disengaged from reality

Therefore, sociologists have justifiably faced significant criticism for their lack of empathy and compassion. As was indicated previously, in response to this criticism, new methodological processes such as action research, ethnomethodology, and emotionalism have been devised. This underscores the subject of how to demonstrate empathy and attentiveness in light of reality and the research thereon.

Simply saying that skepticism is a key component of sociology does not absolve one of responsibility for the discipline’s objective of gaining a thorough understanding of social phenomena or from a lack of empathy for the subjects of one’s study. In the realm of social science, “a skeptical attitude” may be understood in a number of different ways. Kuhn anticipated obedience to specific notions and theories of the prevailing paradigm as well as compliance with the game’s rules, such as those guiding study design, analysis, and presentation

Academic innovation in Anthropology and Sociology.

On the other hand, Feyerabend claimed that the independent researcher is vital to the advancement of knowledge. He reaches the conclusion that “insistence on the standards would not have benefited situations; it would have blocked practise” after analyzing the historical methods by which new information has been obtained via scientific effort

Although innovation and breaking tradition are usually hailed in the contemporary academic atmosphere, Asplund points out that, in reality, it could be harder to attract support from the academic community. Robert Chambers, a famous social scientist who has made contributions to development studies, seems to have a different take on this, claiming that the foundation of social science is issue identification and critical assessment

 But it doesn’t seem that the cynicism Chambers is referring to is the inventive and vivifying kind, which is a sign of emancipation from limits like norms and duties. According to Chambers, skepticism is needed to effectively appreciate rural development and development solutions. But if cynicism becomes the norm, it might also be deceitful since it can favor the convenience and growth of the researcher at the expense of the purposes of science.

Bringing up the literature on participation and empowerment in development once again, as well as these studies offer analysis based on important data, although they are deceptive as they eliminate perspectives that disagree with the mainstream narrative. Skepticism, which is described as flexibility and open-mindedness or as having a skepticism toward expectations and preconceived conceptions, is so lacking.

Advantages of anthropology over sociology

Eric Wolf says that anthropology is a scientific and humanistic area of the humanities. In addition to physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology studies, the majority of university curricula now incorporate cultural or social anthropology courses. Cultural anthropology looks at people’s historical, political, and psychological features to understand how numerous events are connected as well as human nature and how it came to be the way it is.

Some people claim that anthropology is a study of colonialism, that early anthropologists frequently had more authority than the subjects they were investigating, and that the knowledge collected is regarded as a type of theft where the anthropologist gains power at the expense of informants. No matter where it originated, anthropology has grown into a science that is interested in all parts of culture, from the exceptional to the banal, from the study of ancient civilizations to that of current economic systems.

Sometimes, anthropologists are shown as professionals chatting with inhabitants on far-off, exotic islands or as true Indiana Joneses entranced with their mummies. Actually, it is no longer the case. Currently, anthropologists have a range of professions outside of academia, including those in social services, government, and charitable groups. Journalism, finance, commerce, advertising, administration, market research, sales management, and organizational studies are a few of these areas. It has been established that the study of anthropology is no longer relegated to the study of little, isolated civilizations and that anthropological ideas, methodologies, and theories may be applied to comprehend the humanity of modern cultures and global communities. As a result, various other subfields of anthropology—including linguistic, urban, visual, corporate, medical, and forensic anthropology—have emerged over time.

Why do anthropologists have such broad interests? What role does anthropology play in our endeavor to grasp how people interact with one another, their environment, and a certain culture?

In my honest judgment, anthropology has had some success in a variety of sectors owing to its basically scientific approach. The humanities and social sciences offer a strong framework for anthropology, a branch of study that predominantly focuses on qualitative research. Anthropology involves qualitative study and analysis to seek to comprehend culture, whereas the main objective of quantitative research is to quantify.

To identify the value and relevance of objects to the tribes and civilizations for whom they were made, anthropologists study them. They employ a more emic than etic strategy, elevating the researchers’ viewpoints above those of the study participants. To limit any prejudice emanating from their own cultural perspective, anthropologists must ensure neutrality.

Anthropologists also use participant observation and ethnography as alternatives. Instead of merely watching their subjects, anthropologists may obtain a better grasp of how people go about their everyday lives by engaging in their activities. Participant observation has various benefits, one of which is that it supports anthropologists in understanding a community’s activities, people’s thinking, and how and why a civilization runs on a deeper level.

Anthropologists adopt Ethnography

Anthropologists adopt ethnography, which is based on fieldwork, as a way to research and comprehend cultural diversity.

A separate culture, civilization, or tribe is described in ethnography. Spending a year or more connecting with residents in a foreign place, learning about their culture, and participating in their activities is a regular fieldwork requirement. Observers take part in ethnography. They take part in the activities they watch since it helps them better grasp the area’s customs and practices.

In spite of the current global economic crisis, many countries are making efforts to defend their economies. President Bush signed the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 in October of the previous year. This Act, commonly referred to as the “Bailout Plan,” allows the US Secretary of the Treasury the ability to spend up to US$700 billion to support the struggling economy. The CEOs of General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler requested $34 billion from Congress on Capitol Hill in December. They stated that the money was important for restoring the auto sector. One of the CEOs claimed that they had learned from previous failures and were striving to make the firm more client-oriented while still keeping an eye on the consumer and market in one of their suggestions to Congress that explained how they would employ loans to return to profitability.

Since anthropological research and methodologies may help academics better understand customers, their consumption habits, and how people utilize goods and services, business is becoming more interested in them. Major consumer goods corporations such as Procter & Gamble, Whirlpool, Volvo, and Electrolux have segmented a range of socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial groupings and offered things mainly to these target categories in an effort to better understand customer behavior. Firm anthropology is a terrific marketing tool, but it can also be used to grasp the corporate culture of a business. With increased knowledge of employee behavior, cognition, and perception in a workplace or factory, enhancing individual performance and creative output may someday be attainable. Examining various peer groups or social groupings may assist with this. Globalization has expanded as a consequence of improvements in technology, communication, and transportation. People in other parts of the world are quickly affected by events in the United States. Conventional boundaries are virtually useless because it is so easy to cross between various zones.

In the current global civilization, we no longer live in rural areas. In actuality, individuals from various countries, ethnic groups, and dialects occasionally congregate in the same spot. Each person has their own traditions, language, cuisine, philosophy, and way of life; a human cannot thrive without culture. The concept of a multicultural and diversified society is confirmed by the fact that this tendency affects almost all groups and even institutions. Culture penetrates a broad array of subjects in today’s global, complicated society and international commerce. Never take culture for granted, as it may tell you a lot about individuals and what motivates them.

Let’s Evaluate between Anthropology and Sociology.

Social scientists and anthropologists observe the same events from distinct perspectives. The two academic fields create functional labor divisions. Anthropology and sociology are both valid labels for the two subjects. The ideas would have the same connotative and denotative meanings if the experts in the two disciplines were concerned with a frame of reference and the universal common denominator in the occurrences under consideration. If one is, then both academic fields must be in the sciences.

A village study taken out among “primitive” people would be equivalent to one carried out in the US. Any other unit could be described in the same way. There will always be research on social structure and human nature.

The Sociology Session with Anthropology

Some sociologists tend to disagree with the inclusion of anthropological information in the foundational sociology course. Actually, it doesn’t matter whose culture the artist is influenced by. The goal of the introductory sociology course is to educate the student with knowledge that will let them comprehend any culture. The universal principles that apply to all social circumstances should be evident.

It should establish a context within which every cultural element may be looked at, comprehended, and promoted. If well done, the introductory sociology course may serve as the foundational course for either sociology or anthropology. For schools that compare diverse civilizations, a considerable amount of anthropological material must be kept.

Further Reading

• Asplund, Johan (1970). Om undran inför samhället. Stockholm: Argos Förlag AB Arvidson, Malin (2003).
•  Demanding Values. Participation, Empowerment and NGOs in Bangladesh. Lund Dissertation in Sociology no 51 (www.soc.lu.se) Bauman, Z. (1990). 
• Thinking Sociologically. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Berger, Peter L. (1966). Invitation to Sociology.
•  A Humanistic Perspective. Middlesex: Penguin Books Chambers, Robert (1983). 
• Whose reality counts? Putting the last first. Essex: Longman, Scientific & Technical
• Chowdhury, A. N. (1990). Let the Grassroots Speak: people’s participation, self-help groups and NGOs in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Dhaka University Press Ltd Cook, B. and U. Kothari (eds.) (2001). 
• Participation – the New Tyranny? London: Zed Books Ferguson, J. (1990). The Anti-Politics Machine. ‘Development’ Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against Method. London: New Left Books Gubrium , J.F. & J. A. Holstein (1997). 
• The New Language of Qualitative Method. New York: Oxford University Press Kalam, A. (ed.) (1996). Bangladesh: Internal Dynamics and External Linkages. Dhaka: University Press Ltd Kuhn T. (1970). 
• The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: Chicago University Press Kramsjö & Wood (1992).
•  Breaking the Chains. Collective action for social justice among the rural poor of Bangladesh. Dhaka: University Press Ltd Lewis, David (ed.) (1999). 
• International Perspectives in Voluntary Action. Reshaping the Third Sector. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd Lewis, David (2002). 
• To Bite the Hands that Feed? Strengthening the future of anthropology and development research in Bangladesh, in Contemporary Anthropology. Theory and Practice, by S. M. Nurul Alam (ed.). Dhaka: University Press Ltd Long, Norman (2001). 
• Development Sociology: Actor Perspectives. London: Routledge Lovell, C. H. (1992). Breaking the Cycle of Poverty.
• The BRAC Strategy. Dhaka: University Press Ltd 
• Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Drishti Kalra is an Assistant professor at DCAC College in the Department of History, at Delhi University. She is also a PhD Research scholar at the Department of History at Delhi University. She has also been employed as a Research Assistant on two projects at the Max Planck Institute in Germany and JNU. Currently, she is also working as a Research Associate at the DU Centenary Project on the "History of Delhi University". She has lately held positions with institutions such as The Telegraph, Médecins Sans Frontières, Intern, and Hindu Business Line.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Sociology and Anthropology

Anthropology is a broad field of study, whose subject matter is ‘Man’, both past and present. Many think that sociology is same as anthropology, but the fact is sociology is a sub-domain of anthropology.

Sociology is a social science which studies organized groups, their functions, origins, interactions, problems etc. In this article excerpt, we are going to discuss the differences between anthropology and sociology.

Content: Sociology Vs Anthropology

Comparison chart.

Definition of Sociology

Sociology is a behavioural science which deals with the social lives, changes, interaction, causes and outcomes of human behaviour. Basically, sociology studies how people interact with one another in society, as well as how an individual’s behaviour is swayed according to the social structure, categories, etc.

The sociologists study the structure, patterns, processes, organization, culture and behaviour of society by observing and surveying the changes in the significant elements of organized groups such as communities, societies, etc.

Sociology is a scientific field of study in which, we get to know about human society, social behaviour, interactions, structure, processes, the pattern of relationships and its forms. The individuals who study sociology are called as sociologists. The social facts collected by the sociologists include the attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, traditions, institutions and so forth, constituting the social order.

Sociology helps in addressing a number of social issues such as community belief and practices, social mobility, stratification, changes, disorder/unrest, etc.

Definition of Anthropology

Anthropology refers to a methodical study of human beings concerning their evolution and development, the way they behave and communicate, the culture they follow, how they adapt to the dynamic environment, how they socialize, etc. physically, socially and culturally.

Further, it also deals with the prehistoric origins, the distinctiveness of human beings as species, and modern human diversity. In finer terms, anthropology is the study of a ‘man’ in terms of biological and sociocultural facets.

The individual who studies anthropology is known as an anthropologist. Anthropologists attempt to explore more about human origin and antiquity, as to what makes us human beings. And they do so by researching our ancestors by way of archaeological survey and by analyzing the culture around the world.

Branches of Anthropology

• Human genetics
• Human palaeontology
• Anthropometry
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Social Anthropology

Key Differences Between Sociology and Anthropology

The difference between sociology and anthropology can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

• Sociology refers to a social science which studies society, its structure, the pattern of relationship, interactions, etc. of day to day life. On the contrary, Anthropology is a social science which studies of human beings, with respect to their origin, development and behaviour.
• Sociology is concerned with the people living in interdependence, i.e. the society. Conversely, anthropology deals with human beings and their ancestors, as to how they evolved, how they adapt themselves, how they interact with each other and how they differ from other species.
• While sociologist studies the behaviour of humans, with respect to the causes and consequences at a group level or societal level, anthropology studies the same at the individual level.
• Sociology aims at removing the social issues, through policies. On the other hand, the primary aim of anthropology is to know about human diversity and cultural difference.
• Sociology studies both preliterates and literates, i.e. modern and ancient societies. As against, Anthropology studies only preliterates, i.e. uncivilized, ancient and primitive society. Here preliterate denotes a society or culture that has not developed the use of writing as a medium of communication.
• Sociologists use both qualitative and quantitative method for research purposes. In contrast, anthropologists use only qualitative method.

In a nutshell, anthropology is the study of a ‘man’. It studies all aspects and characteristics of human beings, including sociology of the ancestors. On the other hand, in sociology, we study patterned and shared behaviour of human beings, and their social lives, social change, social mobility etc.

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Anthropology vs. Sociology

When choosing between anthropology and sociology for a college major, it is important to understand what are the areas of study and career prospects for each field. Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors through time in terms of physical characteristics, environmental and social relations, and culture . On the other hand, sociology is the study of human society at a given period in time. Anthropology covers all characteristics of humanity, including physiology and evolutionary origins while sociology focuses on social relationships. More U.S. universities offer programs in sociology than anthropology.

Comparison chart

Areas of Study

A typical anthropology degree includes the study of human evolution, cross-cultural issues, rituals and myths and cultural history. Areas of specialization in anthropology include sociocultural, linguistic, physical and archaeological anthropology. Sociocultural anthropology is the study of culture, mostly based on ethnography, with a central focus on kinship and social organization. Linguistic anthropology studies the history of human communication, while physical anthropology examines the evolution of humans and other primates . Archaeological anthropology studies human history through its artifacts such as pieces of pottery and tools.

A typical sociology degree includes study of social problems, criminology, culture, race, gender and ethnicity. Areas of specialization in sociology include families, urban communities, health, aging, economics, ethnicity , sex and gender , and crime.

Sociology seems to be more popular in the United States with more than 1,000 universities offering sociology programs. Only about 400 universities offer anthropology programs.

Students who major in anthropology can go on to get PhDs and research in anthropology departments, campus ethnic centers and museums. Anthropologists can also work in government and international agencies, at healthcare centers and nonprofit associations, and in environmental projects. The average starting salary for an anthropology major is $37,600.

Students who major in sociology can go on to graduate study of sociology, economics , political science and psychology. They also become lawyers , and work in criminal justice, education , advertising, human resources, and government work. The average starting salary for a sociology major is $33,400.

Anthropology first appeared, as a term, in 1593. Kant began teaching a course on anthropology in 1772. It became popular during the Enlightenment and became distinct from biology in the 19th century.

Sociology was coined as a term by Auguste Conte in 1838. It became a popular subject in the 19th century, with scholars including Herbert Spencer and Karl Marx. It became a formal academic discipline at the end of the 19th century, through the work of Emile Durkheim.

Famous Scholars

Famous anthropologists include Franz Boas, who is considered the father of American anthropology, Margaret Mead, who pioneered cultural anthropology and studied women’s rights, Clifford Geertz, who wrote “The Interpretation of Cultures,” and Paul Farmer, a cultural anthropologist and human rights activist.

Famous classical sociologists include Emile Durkheim who argued social facts as external to the individuals, Karl Marx who wrote "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Kapital", Max Weber famous for his idea of rationalization and historical-comparative approach, George Herbert Mead, one of the founders of symbolic interactionism, and Georg Simmel. After them, sociologists in mid-20th century like C. Wright Mills, Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Erving Goffman, George C. Homans, Pierre Bourdieu are frequently mentioned as modern sociologists,

Famous Research

Famous anthropological discoveries include the discovery that all languages are historically related, descending from a “proto language ,” that humans had ancestors who are now extinct, and that chimpanzees have culture and use tools.

Famous sociological studies include Robert Merton’s definition of the terms “self-fulfilling prophecy” and “role model,” Karl Marx’s study of capitalism , Herbert Spencer’s coining of the phrase “survival of the fittest,” and Charles Horton Cooley’s theory of “the looking-glass self.”

Anthropologists have been criticized for focusing on Western history and society at the expense of other cultures. Some argue that it has its origins in colonialism.

• Wikipedia: Anthropology
• Wikipedia: Sociology
• Famous Anthropologists - Buzzle
• 10 Famous Cultural Anthropologists - Discovery Channel
• Wikipedia: List of discoveries#Anthropology
• Wikibooks: Introduction to Sociology / Famous Sociologists
• What is Anthropology? - Boston University
• Study Sociology in the US - International Student
• Best Colleges for Sociology Majors - MyMajors
• Best Colleges for Anthropology Majors - MyMajors

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What are sociology and anthropology, they are both distinct areas of study, with separate histories and different ways of looking at the world..

While sociology and anthropology have different emphases—one examines social structures, the other focuses on culture—there is much that they have in common. Both look at the "big picture," are interested in the way society influences people's lives, and strive to promote understanding. So how do they fit into daily life, and why should we study them? Let’s take a closer look at their similarities and differences.

What is Sociology?

Sociology is the study of social life and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. In the words of C. Wright Mills, sociology looks for the "public issues" that underlie "private troubles." Sociology differs from popular notions of human behavior in that it uses systematic, scientific methods of investigation and questions many of the common sense and taken-for-granted views of our social world. Sociological thinking involves taking a closer look at our social world and recognizing that most often things are not necessarily what they seem. A sociologist understands unemployment, for example, not as the problem of one person who can't find a job, but as the interaction of economic, political, and social forces that determine the number of jobs and who has access to them.

What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is a broad, holistic study of human beings and includes the subfields of archaeology, physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Anthropologists study human beings from a very broad and comparative perspective. We are interested in human experience around the world, past and present. Cultural anthropologists study cultures—from our own culture to those different from our own — by living in the culture and gaining the insider's point of view.

Get more information about studying sociology and anthropology at Gustavus Adolphus.

Exploring Anthropology vs Sociology: Differences in Social Sciences

While anthropology and sociology are quite similar in ways, they also branch out to include concepts that are completely separate — yet still complementary. As you delve deeper into your research about the two, you may be particularly drawn to one. Let’s look at some of the differences between anthropology and sociology.

Difference between Sociology and Anthropology

• Anthropology has a much wider scope than sociology. Anthropology studies every facet of human societies, including their culture, biology, and history. In contrast, sociology focuses much more specifically on the social aspects of human behavior.
• The time period covered by each specialty differs as well. Anthropology studies history to answer questions about the future, studying historical civilizations to make predictions and gain perspective on what the future may hold. On the other hand, sociologists focus on contemporary issues, including the way societies currently interact with one another — and why.
• Anthropologists and sociologists use vastly different methods . Anthropologists study human societies using a variety of techniques, including fieldwork, observation, and archival research. While sociologists use these methods as well, they also rely on quantitative measures; for example, surveys and other statistical analysis.
• There are also different levels of analysis within each specialty. Anthropology is honed in on human behavior at the individual level. Sociology focuses on the behavior of groups and their relations with current social structures.

Understanding Anthropology: Cultural and Social Aspects of Human Societies

Anthropology is a wide-ranging field that includes the study of human biology, culture, and society. Anthropologists use a variety of methods to study human beings, including fieldwork, participant observation, and archival research.

Anthropology provides a broad understanding of human beings. It is a holistic discipline that studies all aspects of human beings, from their biology to their culture. This gives us a deep understanding of what it means to be human. By studying persons from a variety of social and cultural situations, anthropology helps us to understand both our own cultures and societies as well as those of others.

In the real world, anthropology helps us to solve problems in a variety of fields, including education, healthcare, and business. For example, anthropologists can help to design healthcare programs that are culturally sensitive, or to develop educational materials that are effective in different cultures.

The World of Sociology: Political and Cultural Approaches

Sociology is centered on the structure of specific social groups, societies, and organizations. Sociologists study the ways people interact within these groups. As a sociologist, you’ll analyze everything from brief interactions between random people in public to social topics affecting people worldwide.

When viewed through a sociological lens, you will make new connections in your world, linking things as disparate as relationships, family, work, crime and the law, social mobility, societal problems, and countless other behaviors.

The broad range of paths you could specialize in within the broader umbrella of sociology lets you choose a unique pathway to a professional career that’s tailor-made to your interests and abilities. Sociologists work in social service and activism, community outreach, criminal justice, and urban planning. Skills you’ll learn in sociology also apply to positions in ministry, higher education administration, nonprofit management, and more.

Sociology and Anthropology at the College Level

For those interested in taking their knowledge of anthropology and sociology to the next level, your next step is choosing a college program. The Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Gustavus Adolphus offers major, minor, and Honors degree programs in Sociology and Anthropology. Even better, Gustavus lets you take part in both areas of study seamlessly. 

Having two disciplines in one department allows us to offer unique learning opportunities. Our curriculum includes a number of courses that combine sociological and anthropological thinking, including courses on social movements, health and healing, global interdependence, religion, family, and social justice. This empowers students at Gustavus to develop a better understanding of the social world we live in through a variety of study abroad, internships, and volunteer activities.

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Deepen Your Understanding of Society and Culture at Gustavus Adolphus

Whether you choose to pursue a bachelor’s degree in Sociology and Anthropology or you’re simply interested in learning more about these disciplines, working with Gustavus’s top-notch faculty ensures that you’ll be able to put your new knowledge into action, no matter what your future may hold. Start expanding your world at Gustavus Adolphus College today.

Anthropology

What this handout is about.

This handout briefly situates anthropology as a discipline of study within the social sciences. It provides an introduction to the kinds of writing that you might encounter in your anthropology courses, describes some of the expectations that your instructors may have, and suggests some ways to approach your assignments. It also includes links to information on citation practices in anthropology and resources for writing anthropological research papers.

What is anthropology, and what do anthropologists study?

Anthropology is the study of human groups and cultures, both past and present. Anthropology shares this focus on the study of human groups with other social science disciplines like political science, sociology, and economics. What makes anthropology unique is its commitment to examining claims about human ‘nature’ using a four-field approach. The four major subfields within anthropology are linguistic anthropology, socio-cultural anthropology (sometimes called ethnology), archaeology, and physical anthropology. Each of these subfields takes a different approach to the study of humans; together, they provide a holistic view. So, for example, physical anthropologists are interested in humans as an evolving biological species. Linguistic anthropologists are concerned with the physical and historical development of human language, as well as contemporary issues related to culture and language. Archaeologists examine human cultures of the past through systematic examinations of artifactual evidence. And cultural anthropologists study contemporary human groups or cultures.

What kinds of writing assignments might I encounter in my anthropology courses?

The types of writing that you do in your anthropology course will depend on your instructor’s learning and writing goals for the class, as well as which subfield of anthropology you are studying. Each writing exercise is intended to help you to develop particular skills. Most introductory and intermediate level anthropology writing assignments ask for a critical assessment of a group of readings, course lectures, or concepts. Here are three common types of anthropology writing assignments:

Critical essays

This is the type of assignment most often given in anthropology courses (and many other college courses). Your anthropology courses will often require you to evaluate how successfully or persuasively a particular anthropological theory addresses, explains, or illuminates a particular ethnographic or archaeological example. When your instructor tells you to “argue,” “evaluate,” or “assess,” they are probably asking for some sort of critical essay. (For more help with deciphering your assignments, see our handout on understanding assignments .)

Writing a “critical” essay does not mean focusing only on the most negative aspects of a particular reading or theory. Instead, a critical essay should evaluate or assess both the weaknesses and the merits of a given set of readings, theories, methods, or arguments.

Sample assignment:

Assess the cultural evolutionary ideas of late 19th century anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan in terms of recent anthropological writings on globalization (select one recent author to compare with Morgan). What kinds of anthropological concerns or questions did Morgan have? What kinds of anthropological concerns underlie the current anthropological work on globalization that you have selected? And what assumptions, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies inform these questions or projects?

Ethnographic projects

Another common type of research and writing activity in anthropology is the ethnographic assignment. Your anthropology instructor might expect you to engage in a semester-long ethnographic project or something shorter and less involved (for example, a two-week mini-ethnography).

So what is an ethnography? “Ethnography” means, literally, a portrait (graph) of a group of people (ethnos). An ethnography is a social, political, and/or historical portrait of a particular group of people or a particular situation or practice, at a particular period in time, and within a particular context or space. Ethnographies have traditionally been based on an anthropologist’s long-term, firsthand research (called fieldwork) in the place and among the people or activities they are studying. If your instructor asks you to do an ethnographic project, that project will likely require some fieldwork.

Because they are so important to anthropological writing and because they may be an unfamiliar form for many writers, ethnographies will be described in more detail later in this handout.

Spend two hours riding the Chapel Hill Transit bus. Take detailed notes on your observations, documenting the setting of your fieldwork, the time of day or night during which you observed and anything that you feel will help paint a picture of your experience. For example, how many people were on the bus? Which route was it? What time? How did the bus smell? What kinds of things did you see while you were riding? What did people do while riding? Where were people going? Did people talk? What did they say? What were people doing? Did anything happen that seemed unusual, ordinary, or interesting to you? Why? Write down any thoughts, self-reflections, and reactions you have during your two hours of fieldwork. At the end of your observation period, type up your fieldnotes, including your personal thoughts (labeling them as such to separate them from your more descriptive notes). Then write a reflective response about your experience that answers this question: how is riding a bus about more than transportation?

Analyses using fossil and material evidence

In some assignments, you might be asked to evaluate the claims different researchers have made about the emergence and effects of particular human phenomena, such as the advantages of bipedalism, the origins of agriculture, or the appearance of human language. To complete these assignments, you must understand and evaluate the claims being made by the authors of the sources you are reading, as well as the fossil or material evidence used to support those claims. Fossil evidence might include things like carbon dated bone remains; material evidence might include things like stone tools or pottery shards. You will usually learn about these kinds of evidence by reviewing scholarly studies, course readings, and photographs, rather than by studying fossils and artifacts directly.

The emergence of bipedalism (the ability to walk on two feet) is considered one of the most important adaptive shifts in the evolution of the human species, but its origins in space and time are debated. Using course materials and outside readings, examine three authors’ hypotheses for the origins of bipedalism. Compare the supporting points (such as fossil evidence and experimental data) that each author uses to support their claims. Based on your examination of the claims and the supporting data being used, construct an argument for why you think bipedal locomotion emerged where and when it did.

How should I approach anthropology papers?

Writing an essay in anthropology is very similar to writing an argumentative essay in other disciplines. In most cases, the only difference is in the kind of evidence you use to support your argument. In an English essay, you might use textual evidence from novels or literary theory to support your claims; in an anthropology essay, you will most often be using textual evidence from ethnographies, artifactual evidence, or other support from anthropological theories to make your arguments.

Here are some tips for approaching your anthropology writing assignments:

• Make sure that you understand what the prompt or question is asking you to do. It is a good idea to consult with your instructor or teaching assistant if the prompt is unclear to you. See our handout on arguments and handout on college writing for help understanding what many college instructors look for in a typical paper.
• Review the materials that you will be writing with and about. One way to start is to set aside the readings or lecture notes that are not relevant to the argument you will make in your paper. This will help you focus on the most important arguments, issues, and behavioral and/or material data that you will be critically assessing. Once you have reviewed your evidence and course materials, you might decide to have a brainstorming session. Our handouts on reading in preparation for writing and brainstorming might be useful for you at this point.
• Develop a working thesis and begin to organize your evidence (class lectures, texts, research materials) to support it. Our handouts on constructing thesis statements and paragraph development will help you generate a thesis and develop your ideas and arguments into clearly defined paragraphs.

What is an ethnography? What is ethnographic evidence?

Many introductory anthropology courses involve reading and evaluating a particular kind of text called an ethnography. To understand and assess ethnographies, you will need to know what counts as ethnographic data or evidence.

You’ll recall from earlier in this handout that an ethnography is a portrait—a description of a particular human situation, practice, or group as it exists (or existed) in a particular time, at a particular place, etc. So what kinds of things might be used as evidence or data in an ethnography (or in your discussion of an ethnography someone else has written)? Here are a few of the most common:

• Things said by informants (people who are being studied or interviewed). When you are trying to illustrate someone’s point of view, it is very helpful to appeal to their own words. In addition to using verbatim excerpts taken from interviews, you can also paraphrase an informant’s response to a particular question.
• Observations and descriptions of events, human activities, behaviors, or situations.
• Relevant historical background information.
• Statistical data.

Remember that “evidence” is not something that exists on its own. A fact or observation becomes evidence when it is clearly connected to an argument in order to support that argument. It is your job to help your reader understand the connection you are making: you must clearly explain why statements x, y, and z are evidence for a particular claim and why they are important to your overall claim or position.

Citation practices in anthropology

In anthropology, as in other fields of study, it is very important that you cite the sources that you use to form and articulate your ideas. (Please refer to our handout on plagiarism for information on how to avoid plagiarizing). Anthropologists follow the Chicago Manual of Style when they document their sources. The basic rules for anthropological citation practices can be found in the AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style Guide. Note that anthropologists generally use in-text citations, rather than footnotes. This means that when you are using someone else’s ideas (whether it’s a word-for-word quote or something you have restated in your own words), you should include the author’s last name and the date the source text was published in parentheses at the end of the sentence, like this: (Author 1983).

If your anthropology or archaeology instructor asks you to follow the style requirements of a particular academic journal, the journal’s website should contain the information you will need to format your citations. Examples of such journals include The American Journal of Physical Anthropology and American Antiquity . If the style requirements for a particular journal are not explicitly stated, many instructors will be satisfied if you consistently use the citation style of your choice.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Scupin, Raymond, and Christopher DeCorse. 2016. Anthropology: A Global Perspective , 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Solis, Jacqueline. 2020. “A to Z Databases: Anthropology.” Subject Research Guides, University of North Carolina. Last updated November 2, 2020. https://guides.lib.unc.edu/az.php?s=1107 .

University of Chicago Press. 2017. The Chicago Manual of Style , 17th ed. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Palomer College - Overview of Anthropology
• Internet Archive - "Anthropology: an introduction to the study of man and civilization"
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• Table Of Contents

anthropology , “the science of humanity,” which studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species. Because of the diverse subject matter it encompasses , anthropology has become, especially since the middle of the 20th century, a collection of more specialized fields. Physical anthropology is the branch that concentrates on the biology and evolution of humanity. It is discussed in greater detail in the article human evolution . The branches that study the social and cultural constructions of human groups are variously recognized as belonging to cultural anthropology (or ethnology), social anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and psychological anthropology ( see below ). Archaeology ( see below ), as the method of investigation of prehistoric cultures , has been an integral part of anthropology since it became a self-conscious discipline in the latter half of the 19th century. (For a longer treatment of the history of archaeology, see archaeology .)

Throughout its existence as an academic discipline, anthropology has been located at the intersection of natural science and humanities . The biological evolution of Homo sapiens and the evolution of the capacity for culture that distinguishes humans from all other species are indistinguishable from one another. While the evolution of the human species is a biological development like the processes that gave rise to the other species, the historical appearance of the capacity for culture initiates a qualitative departure from other forms of adaptation , based on an extraordinarily variable creativity not directly linked to survival and ecological adaptation. The historical patterns and processes associated with culture as a medium for growth and change, and the diversification and convergence of cultures through history, are thus major foci of anthropological research.

In the middle of the 20th century, the distinct fields of research that separated anthropologists into specialties were (1) physical anthropology , emphasizing the biological process and endowment that distinguishes Homo sapiens from other species, (2) archaeology, based on the physical remnants of past cultures and former conditions of contemporary cultures, usually found buried in the earth, (3) linguistic anthropology, emphasizing the unique human capacity to communicate through articulate speech and the diverse languages of humankind, and (4) social and/or cultural anthropology, emphasizing the cultural systems that distinguish human societies from one another and the patterns of social organization associated with these systems. By the middle of the 20th century, many American universities also included (5) psychological anthropology, emphasizing the relationships among culture, social structure, and the human being as a person.

The concept of culture as the entire way of life or system of meaning for a human community was a specialized idea shared mainly by anthropologists until the latter half of the 20th century. However, it had become a commonplace by the beginning of the 21st century. The study of anthropology as an academic subject had expanded steadily through those 50 years, and the number of professional anthropologists had increased with it. The range and specificity of anthropological research and the involvement of anthropologists in work outside of academic life have also grown, leading to the existence of many specialized fields within the discipline. Theoretical diversity has been a feature of anthropology since it began and, although the conception of the discipline as “the science of humanity” has persisted, some anthropologists now question whether it is possible to bridge the gap between the natural sciences and the humanities. Others argue that new integrative approaches to the complexities of human being and becoming will emerge from new subfields dealing with such subjects as health and illness, ecology and environment , and other areas of human life that do not yield easily to the distinction between “nature” and “culture” or “body” and “mind.”

Anthropology in 1950 was—for historical and economic reasons—instituted as a discipline mainly found in western Europe and North America . Field research was established as the hallmark of all the branches of anthropology. While some anthropologists studied the “folk” traditions in Europe and America , most were concerned with documenting how people lived in nonindustrial settings outside these areas. These finely detailed studies of everyday life of people in a broad range of social, cultural, historical, and material circumstances were among the major accomplishments of anthropologists in the second half of the 20th century.

Beginning in the 1930s, and especially in the post- World War II period, anthropology was established in a number of countries outside western Europe and North America. Very influential work in anthropology originated in Japan, India, China, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, South Africa , Nigeria, and several other Asian, Latin American, and African countries. The world scope of anthropology, together with the dramatic expansion of social and cultural phenomena that transcend national and cultural boundaries, has led to a shift in anthropological work in North America and Europe. Research by Western anthropologists is increasingly focused on their own societies, and there have been some studies of Western societies by non-Western anthropologists. By the end of the 20th century, anthropology was beginning to be transformed from a Western—and, some have said, “colonial”—scholarly enterprise into one in which Western perspectives are regularly challenged by non-Western ones.

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1.2: Anthropological Perspectives

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Anthropologists across the subfields use unique perspectives to conduct their research. These perspectives make anthropology distinct from related disciplines — like history, sociology, and psychology — that ask similar questions about the past, societies, and human nature. The key anthropological perspectives are holism, relativism, comparison, and fieldwork. There are also both scientific and humanistic tendencies within the discipline that, at times, conflict with one another.

Anthropologists are interested in the whole of humanity, in how various aspects of life interact. One cannot fully appreciate what it means to be human by studying a single aspect of our complex histories, languages, bodies, or societies. By using a holistic approach, anthropologists ask how different aspects of human life influence one another. For example, a cultural anthropologist studying the meaning of marriage in a small village in India might consider local gender norms, existing family networks, laws regarding marriage, religious rules, and economic factors. A biological anthropologist studying monkeys in South America might consider the species’ physical adaptations, foraging patterns, ecological conditions, and interactions with humans in order to answer questions about their social behaviors. By understanding how nonhuman primates behave, we discover more about ourselves (after all, humans are primates)! By using a holistic approach, anthropologists reveal the complexity of biological, social, or cultural phenomena.

Anthropology itself is a holistic discipline, comprised in the United States (and in some other nations) of four major subfields: cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology. While anthropologists often specialize in one subfield, their specific research contributes to a broader understanding of the human condition, which is made up of culture, language, biological and social adaptations, as well as human origins and evolution.

Definition: Holism

The study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture (Kottak, 2012, p. 2).

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

The guiding philosophy of modern anthropology is cultural relativism—the idea that we should seek to understand another person’s beliefs and behaviors from the perspective of their culture rather than our own. Anthropologists do not judge other cultures based on their values nor do they view other ways of doing things as inferior. Instead, anthropologists seek to understand people’s beliefs within the system they have for explaining things.

The opposite of cultural relativism is ethnocentrism, the tendency to view one’s own culture as the most important and correct and as a measuring stick by which to evaluate all other cultures that are largely seen as inferior and morally suspect. As it turns out, many people are ethnocentric to some degree; ethnocentrism is a common human experience. Why do we respond the way we do? Why do we behave the way we do? Why do we believe what we believe? Most people find these kinds of questions difficult to answer. Often the answer is simply “because that is how it is done.” People typically believe that their ways of thinking and acting are “normal”; but, at a more extreme level, some believe their ways are better than others.

Ethnocentrism is not a useful perspective in contexts in which people from different cultural backgrounds come into close contact with one another, as is the case in many cities and communities throughout the world. People increasingly find that they must adopt culturally relativistic perspectives in governing communities and as a guide for their interactions with members of the community. For anthropologists, cultural relativism is especially important. We must set aside our innate ethnocentric views in order to allow cultural relativism to guide our inquiries and interactions such that we can learn from others.

Anthropologists of all the subfields use comparison to learn what humans have in common, how we differ, and how we change. Anthropologists ask questions like: How do chimpanzees differ from humans? How do different languages adapt to new technologies? How do countries respond differently to immigration? In cultural anthropology, we compare ideas, morals, practices, and systems within or between cultures. We might compare the roles of men and women in different societies, or contrast how different religious groups conflict within a given society. Like other disciplines that use comparative approaches, such as sociology or psychology, anthropologists make comparisons between people in a given society. Unlike these other disciplines, anthropologists also compare across societies, and between humans and other primates. In essence, anthropological comparisons span societies, cultures, time, place, and species. It is through comparison that we learn more about the range of possible responses to varying contexts and problems.

Anthropologists conduct their research in the field with the species, civilization, or groups of people they are studying. In cultural anthropology, our fieldwork is referred to as ethnography , which is both the process and result of cultural anthropological research. The Greek term “ethno” refers to people, and “graphy” refers to writing. The ethnographic process involves the research method of participant-observation fieldwork: you participate in people’s lives, while observing them and taking field notes that, along with interviews and surveys, constitute the research data. This research is inductive: based on day-to-day observations, the anthropologist asks increasingly specific questions about the group or about the human condition more broadly. Often times, informants actively participate in the research process, helping the anthropologist ask better questions and understand different perspectives.

The word ethnography also refers to the end result of our fieldwork. Cultural anthropologists do not write “novels,” rather they write ethnographies, descriptive accounts of culture that weave detailed observations with theory. After all, anthropologists are social scientists. While we study a particular culture to learn more about it and to answer specific research questions, we are also exploring fundamental questions about human society, behavior, or experiences.

In the course of conducting fieldwork with human subjects, anthropologists invariably encounter ethical dilemmas: Who might be harmed by conducting or publishing this research? What are the costs and benefits of identifying individuals involved in this study? How should one resolve the competing interests of the funding agency and the community? To address these questions, anthropologists are obligated to follow a professional code of ethics that guides us through ethical considerations in our research. [6]

SCIENTIFIC AND HUMANISTIC APPROACHES

As you may have noticed from the above discussion of the anthropological sub-disciplines, anthropologists are not unified in what they study or how they conduct research. Some sub-disciplines, like biological anthropology and archaeology, use a deductive, scientific approach. Through hypothesis testing, they collect and analyze material data (e.g. bones, tools, seeds, etc.) to answer questions about human origins and evolution. Other subdisciplines, like cultural anthropology and linguistic anthropology, use humanistic and/or inductive approaches to their collection and analysis of nonmaterial data, like observations of everyday life or language in use.

At times, tension has arisen between the scientific subfields and the humanistic ones. For example, in 2010 some cultural anthropologists critiqued the American Anthropological Association’s mission statement, which stated that the discipline’s goal was “to advance anthropology as the science that studies humankind in all its aspects.” [7] These scholars wanted to replace the word “science” with “public understanding.” They argued that some anthropologists do not use the scientific method of inquiry; instead, they rely more on narratives and interpretations of meaning. After much debate, the word “science” remains in the mission statement and, throughout the United States, anthropology is predominantly categorized as a social science.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kottak, Conrad P. Mirror for Humanity: A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology . New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

• See the American Anthropological Association’s Code of Ethics: http://ethics.americananthro.org/category/statement/ ↵
• See the American Anthropological Association Statement of Purpose: https://www.americananthro.org/ConnectWithAAA/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1650 ↵

Adapted From

"Introduction to Anthropology" by Lara Braff, Grossmont College and Katie Nelson, Inver Hills Community College. In Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology , 2nd Edition, Society for Anthropology in Community Colleges, 2020, under CC BY-NC 4.0 .

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Difference Between Sociology and Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humans and their behaviour at a more individualistic level.

In turn, sociology studies the ways in which groups of humans interact with each other and how their behaviour is influenced by social structures, categories (religion, gender) and institutions

The similarities they share are that they both study human behaviour but the focus is different. 

Anthropology studies human behaviour at the micro-level of an individual which an anthropologist will take an example of the larger culture.

Sociology, on the other hand, tends to look at the bigger picture, often studying political movements, and the power relations of different groups with each other.

Both terms are important within the context of the IAS Exam .

This article will further highlight the differences between Anthropology and Sociology

The difference between the Anthropology and Sociology is highlighted in the table below:

Differences between the Anthropology and Sociology

If you have decided to choose anthropology as an optional in the UPSC Mains exam, the following links will help

• Anthropology for UPSC Exams
• Anthropology Syllabus and Strategy for UPSC Exams

For those that have chosen sociology as an option the following links will be of immense help:

• Sociology for UPSC Exams
• UPSC Sociology Preparation Strategy
• Sociology Syllabus 
• Difference Between Sociology and Psychology
• Difference Between Sociology and History
• Difference Between Sociology and Economics

Difference Between Sociology and Anthropology – Download PDF Here

Frequently Asked Questions about Sociology and Anthropology

What is the importance of studying anthropology and sociology, what is the main focus of anthropology.

Familiarise yourself with the general pattern of the UPSC Exams by visiting the UPSC Syllabus page. For more articles and exam-related preparation materials, refer to the links given in the table below:

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Sociology and Anthropology: Everyday Presences Essay

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The introduction of an individual to a new or a living condition very different from the previous social set ups tends to change individuals’ behavior. New social setup always makes an individual nervous, emotional, confused, and eager to learn and adapt to the specification of the environment. This is a result of poor adaptation at the initial stage, lack of enough knowledge, and the fear of social setup. An individual tries to associate more with those people who are used to the system so that they can act as mentors and guides in what is going on and how to catch up with the situation at hand.

A first sight judgment is a social condition most common in human behavior where an individual interprets the action of another after gestures or physical appearances. The judgment, in most cases, can be positive or negative depending on the interpretation. The persistent gesture of an individual implies interest and the look is followed up by a smile or greetings. An individual interprets certain gestures differently and attaches meaning to them according to the situation.

Love, at first sight, is a form of interpretation of behavior which is independent of a person mind mostly common in woman-manly and man-womanly relationship. A person can perceive to fall in love basing on the respondent’s behavior or physical characteristics during a first-time meeting. The power of the mind is associated with how the person will interpret the gesture since there is a different interpretation by different people.

Personally, my initial post-primary school enrollment was a spectacular encounter that was faced with nervous and depression encounters. The fact that I joined an improved; more maturity-led institution compared to the low-level institution increased my anxiety problems. The change in social setup of the school was marginal but to a great extent, the behavior was very different in comparison to my previous low institution. The confusion was the order of the day as the new environment brought with it changes and routines to follow and be accustomed to them.

School social work was a duty every student had to do; with poor experience of how to go about we ever did the work poorly without keen supervision. The seniors with their denominative mindset used to mock and laugh at us, among them, there were those who felt resentful of the ordeal and they could visibly express that but, to my surprise, no one attempted helping us. These resulted in wondering why show remorse and yet one cannot approach to help or express concerns despite the fact that men tend to be very sympathetic.

The institution environment had all the characters in the society. There were those who thought that they were more superior to others and any means to change their dominative character was faced with retaliatory attacks. Their powers of mind led them to believe that what they said was effective and the potential to interpret issues was solely on them. For an easier and quick understanding of the act of behavior and the way of adaptation, one had to be at liberty and have time to learn and observe. Obedience was paramount to easier learning and idea-sharing among those who had enjoyed a much better time in the institution and had the experience.

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Anthropology vs. Sociology Degree

Mar 08, 2022

Do you have an interest in studying human social behavior within specific societies throughout time? If so, an undergraduate degree in anthropology or sociology may be the right choice for you. The unique courses offered in these areas of study will encourage you to develop a set of tools and a new perspective to help you experience a fulfilling career and life. Read on to learn more about anthropology vs sociology, including what each studies, their similarities and differences and the available career paths.

What is Anthropology?

In the words of the ​ American Anthropological Association ​, "Anthropology is the study of what makes us human." An anthropologist strives to uncover and understand how humans and their societies lived hundreds and thousands of years ago.

To understand what makes each human group distinct, an anthropologist looks at various aspects of the human experience, such as physical character, culture, environment and more. From humans' biological bodies and genetics to survival needs such as food, water, and companionship, anthropologists figure out the ways previous societies and cultures met these needs. Additionally, anthropologists try to understand how people interacted socially, including how they dressed and communicated with one another, such as family, friends and other community members.

A degree in ​ anthropology from an institution such as North Central College prepares students for their future careers with rich academic study and opportunities. Inspiring faculty encourage you to process and apply your knowledge to the world. A successful anthropology major program will enable you to think independently and work globally to solve problems and lead. To get there, you will take several foundational courses. Some may include:

• Language and Culture in Community: Linguistics and Cultural Anthropology
• Stones and Bones: Introduction to Archaeology and Biological Anthropology
• Field Methods: Digging the Earth
• Social Inquiry I: Quantitative
• Social Life and Social Theory

You may also choose from place-oriented and topical anthropology major courses such as:

• Native Nations of North America: Homelands, Reservations and Urban Indian Communities
• Mayas, Aztecs and Their Neighbors: Heart of the Earth
• Urban Anthropology
• Anthropology of Place
• Cultural Ecology
• Applied Economic Anthropology
• Indigenous Peoples, State and Order
• Forensic Anthropology
• Religion, Spirituality and Community
• Law and Order in Cross-Cultural Perspective
• Human Culture, Illness and Wellness: The Anthropology of Medicine

Courses like these will not only prepare you for a career in anthropology but will help you develop cultural competence and deepen an appreciation for the many facets and growth of human life.

What is Sociology?

Why study sociology instead of social anthropology? As defined by the ​ American Sociological Association , sociology is "the study of social life, social change and the social causes and consequences of human behavior." A sociologist explores the structure of groups, organizations and societies, such as their social interactions and processes at a given period in time. To do this, a sociologist examines subjects ranging from gender to race to age, as well as social change, status and movements. This is not to get confused with gender and sexuality studies , although there are some similarities. 

To dig deeper, studying ​sociology at an institution like North Central College will offer core courses such as:

• Life Chances and Choices: Introduction to Sociology
• Pathways in Sociology
• Social Inquiry II: Qualitative
• Sociological Culminating Experience

Other courses may include:

• Gender: Patterns/Privileges/Possibilities
• Race/Ethnicity: Conflict and Change
• Social Class: Get Ahead/Fall Behind

In these courses, the core ideas and lessons will introduce you to intriguing ideas, encourage you to overcome challenges, and discover new truths to promote your development and growth as an engaged and informed student and citizen.

Similarities Between Anthropology and Sociology

Anthropology and sociology both aim to receive a more in-depth look at the causes and effects of human action, whether that is through their culture or social life. By examining a people’s culture, social structure and social institutions, anthropologists and sociologists can see how these factors affect human attitudes, actions and lives.

In addition, anthropologists and sociologists can dig deeper to understand how previous societies and organizations helped create and shape humans. To achieve an understanding of this requires an exploration and analysis of humans' interactions within their community and the role their culture, social class and more played.

You’re probably asking yourself, "What can I do with a sociology degree ?" Students graduating with a degree in anthropology or sociology will find roles in their respective and related fields, such as business, health, journalism, law, medicine, public health, government and education.

Differences Between Anthropology and Sociology

While anthropology and sociology do display similarities, they are not exactly alike. On the one hand, anthropology studies humans and their ancestors through their physical characteristics, environment and culture. The specialization of anthropology is sociocultural, linguistic, biological and archaeological.

On the other hand, sociology studies the development, structure, social interactions and behaviors of human society at a specific time. Specializations in sociology include social institutions, which means a society's economic life, education, family dynamics, politics, and religion. It also explores social stratification and how society categorizes humans by their age, gender, race and ethnicity, and social class. In comparison, anthropology covers all human characteristics, including physiology and evolutionary origins, sociology centers around social relationships.

After learning more about anthropology and sociology, you may ask, "Where can I work with a degree in these areas of study?" In short, anthropologists and sociologists today have access to an array of careers. For instance, anthropologists may work in private businesses, government agencies, non-profit organizations and much more. According to ThoughtCo ​,​ "Their work may involve building research partnerships, assessing economic needs, evaluating policies, developing new educational programs, recording little-known community histories, providing health services and other socially relevant activities."

Similarly, a sociology major can pursue a wide variety of career pathways. These career pathways include, but are not limited to, jobs in industries such as business, education, politics and health. Day-to-day sociology professionals use critical thinking, problem-solving and communication skills. With a sociology degree, you may find yourself interested in jobs such as an educator, social service provider, public health worker, journalist or counselor, to name a few.

Are you considering continuing your education after your bachelor's degree? Graduate school is also a standard route for an anthropology or sociology major. Graduates with their master's or doctorate in anthropology or sociology, for instance, can become college professors, market research analysts and mental health counselors.

The Focus Areas

Anthropology separates into four primary subfields, each using different research techniques and teaching specific skills. These subfields include archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology and linguistic anthropology. According to ​ Dr. Matthew Krystal, ​ professor of anthropology at ​North Central College​, "These subfields, though distinct, are connected by a comparative perspective and a holistic approach." Read on to learn more about the subfields' specific interests and goals.

Archaeology

Archaeologists worldwide study societies and cultures by recovering and analyzing the remains or objects people have left behind. They carefully remove from the ground pottery, tools, human bones, and teeth to learn more about people's daily lives from that time. Also, archaeologists look for plants and animals' remains to learn more about the previously lived environment.

Biological Anthropology

In this focus area, biological anthropologists are interested in learning more about how humans adapted through time to become what they are today. From evolving from animals to adapting to different environments, they see how biology plays a role in shaping the lives from that time and how those lives compare to others around the world.

Cultural Anthropology

A sociocultural anthropologist explores how different societies live and understand the world around them. They aim to learn more about what these societies accept or view as the norm for speaking, eating, dressing, traveling and more. To achieve this, anthropologists gather viewpoints and sometimes even live amongst different societies and cultures to better understand them.

Linguistic Anthropology

Lastly, linguistic anthropology studies the way societies communicate with themselves and with others. Linguistic anthropologists look to uncover how a society's language impacts how members view and connect to the world around them over time. They dive deep to reveal not only the function of language and speech but the social structure as well.

As stated previously, sociology comprises focus areas, including social change, social institutions such as economic life, education, family, politics and religion and social stratification by age, gender, race and ethnicity and social class. It is through these areas sociologists can better understand the humans and societies that lived before us.

Follow the provided link to learn more about sociology vs. psychology , and discover which field of study is more interesting to you!

Kara Kots​ is a social media specialist at North Central College, where she contributes her content, writing and communication skills.

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Practice Question  – Compare and Contrast Sociology with Anthropology.  [UPSC 2013]

Approach  – Introduction, Define Sociology and Anthropology, Outline the the similarities and dissimilarities between both the subjects, Briefly mention the contemporary relations of the two subjects in conclusion. 

INTRODUCTION

Sociology is the study of social life and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. In the words of C. Wright Mills, sociology looks for the “public issues” that underlie “private troubles.” Sociology differs from popular notions of human behavior in that it uses systematic, scientific methods of investigation and questions many of the common sense and taken-for-granted views of our social world. Sociological thinking involves taking a closer look at our social world and recognizing that most often things are not necessarily what they seem.

Anthropology is a broad, holistic study of human beings and includes the subfields of archaeology, physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Anthropologists study human beings from a very broad and comparative perspective. We are interested in human experience around the world, past and present. Cultural anthropologists study cultures—from our own culture to those different from our owns—by living in the culture and gaining the insiders’ point of view.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS

•  Anthropology examines culture more at the micro-level of the individual, which the anthropologist generally takes as an example of the larger culture. In addition, anthropology hones in on the cultural specificities of a given group or community. Sociology, on the other hand, tends to look at the bigger picture, often studying institutions (educational, political, religious), organizations, political movements, and the power relations of different groups with each other.
• Anthropology studies human behavior more at the individual level, while sociology focuses more on group behavior and relations with social structures and institutions.
• Anthropologists conduct research using ethnography (a qualitative research method), while sociologists use both qualitative and quantitative methods.
• The primary goal of anthropology is to understand human diversity and cultural difference, while sociology is more solution-oriented with the goal of fixing social problems through policy.

Anthropology is a general science like sociology. The word Anthropology is derived from two Greek words —Anthropos meaning ‘man’ and logos meaning ‘study’. Thus, the etymological meaning of ‘Anthropology’ is the study of man. Precisely, it is defined by Kroeber as ‘the science of man and his works and behaviour’. Anthropology is “concerned not with particular man but with man in groups, with races and peoples and their happenings and doings”.

It has made outstanding contributions to the study of man. Sociology, in particular, has been immensely enriched by the anthropological studies. Anthropology seems to be the broadest of all the social sciences. It studies man both as a member of the animal kingdom and as a member of the human society. It studies the biological as well as the cultural developments of man. Anthropology has a wide field of study. Kroeber mentions two broad divisions of anthropology: (i) Organic or Physical Anthropology and (ii) the Socio- cultural Anthropology.

Physical Anthropology Physical Anthropology studies man as a biological being, that is, as a member of the animal kingdom. Here, anthropology accepts and uses the general principles of biology; the laws of heredity and the doctrines of cell development and evolution.

Sociocultural Anthropology Sociocultural Anthropology, more often referred to as ‘Cultural Anthropology’, studies man as a social animal. This branch of anthropology which is concerned with the more-than-merely-organic aspects of human behaviour seems to be more interested in ancient and savage and exotic and extinct peoples. The main reason for this is a desire to understand better all civilisations, irrespective of time and place, in the abstract, or as generalised principles as possible.  Sociocultural Anthropology’s main concern is culture. It deals with the origin and development of man’s culture.

According to Hoebel, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense one and the same”. Evans Pritchard considers social anthropology a branch of sociology. Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies. The studies made by famous anthropologists like Radcliffe Brown, B. Malinowski, Ralph Linton, Lowie, Raymond Firth, Margaret Mead, Evans Pritchard and others, have been proved to be valuable in sociology. Sociological topics such as the origin of family, the beginning of marriage, private property, the genesis of religion, etc., can better be understood in the light of anthropological knowledge. The anthropological studies have shown that there is no correlation between anatomical characteristics and mental superiority. The notion of racial superiority has been disproved by anthropology. Further, sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural area, culture traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag, culture patterns, culture configuration etc., from socio-cultural anthropology. The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as socio-cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of society can be gained by comparing various cultures, particularly, the modern with the primitive.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

• Frazer defined “social anthropology as that branch of sociology that deals with primitive societies” .
• According to Radcliffe-Brown (1983) social anthropology is a ‘comparative sociology’. By the term ‘comparative sociology’, he would mean “a science that applies the generalizing method of the natural sciences to the phenomena of  the social life of man and to everything that we include under the term culture or civilisation”.
• While anthropology was formulated as a holistic study of mankind and related aspects, Auguste Comte also considered that sociology would be the overarching study of human society.
• Both anthropology and sociology, following the model of science, combined description and generalization.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

• The first and foremost difference lies in the definition of the scope of the subjects itself. Sociology is the study (or science) of society, whereas anthropology (integrated anthropology) is the study of man and everything that concerns man, including the physical and socio-cultural aspects.
• A notable difference between sociology and anthropology can be traced through historical roots. Anthropology is generally considered to have “no roots in philosophy” while “the former has”. While the emergence of sociology can be mainly attributed to the attempt to bring about social order in the society (in the European social context) after the great social transformation brought about by industrial revolution and French revolution, its influence on the emergence of anthropology was not as direct as with sociology or other social sciences; rather it was an indirect influence through the opening up of intellectual and geographical spaces to enable the European scholars to go outside the European society and study the pre-literate societies.
• The original focus of the areas of interest between sociology and anthropology (socio-cultural) has been one of the main factors of divergences. Sociology began with the focal interest with the study of society-as a generalizing social science, particularly with a focus on a larger societal context to explain social phenomena. It focuses on the study of industrialized societies (the western societies, particularly Europe) who are considered as modern societies. On the other hand, the initial focal interest of anthropology was the study of the ‘other’ exotic communities that are non-European and/or non-western societies. Hence, their focus and practice was on the study of simple, small-scale, and pre-literate societies situated outside Europe and western societies. 
• The other distinction between sociology and socio-cultural anthropology can be located in its methodology, particularly methods and techniques of research. Sociologists largely employ quantitative methods like questionnaires to collect data and subsequent analysis of the data with the help of statistical techniques. Anthropology began as a field-based science. Anthropologists largely use qualitative methods, particularly ‘participant observation’ along with other methods and techniques.

The relationship of sociology with social anthropology is very close indeed. The two disciplines are very close that it is difficult to differentiate, particularly in the scope, interest areas, theories, methodology, and practice. The tradition in which they were evolved also had much convergence in its thrust areas of enquiry. This is due to the fact that both sociology and social anthropology study human society and largely share their theoretical problems and interests. This is also the reason why social anthropology is considered by many scholars to be part of sociology or a branch of sociology. Despite its similarities, there are also certain differences between the two subjects which can be located from the early developmental phase to the later phases as well in terms of the areas and thrust of enquiry, preference of the use of methodology, theories, and practice.

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• DOI: 10.1002/sea2.12327
• Corpus ID: 270549209

How are you, anthropology? Reflections on well‐being and the common good

• John K. Millhauser
• Published in Economic Anthropology 1 June 2024
• Economics, Philosophy

36 References

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