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Citing Sources: What are citations and why should I use them?

What is a citation.

Citations are a way of giving credit when certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source again-- it provides an important roadmap to your research process. Whenever you use sources such as books, journals or websites in your research, you must give credit to the original author by citing the source. 

Why do researchers cite?

Scholarship is a conversation  and scholars use citations not only to  give credit  to original creators and thinkers, but also to  add strength and authority  to their own work.  By citing their sources, scholars are  placing their work in a specific context  to show where they “fit” within the larger conversation.  Citations are also a great way to  leave a trail  intended to help others who may want to explore the conversation or use the sources in their own work.

In short, citations

(1) give credit

(2) add strength and authority to your work

(3) place your work in a specific context

(4) leave a trail for other scholars

"Good citations should reveal your sources, not conceal them. They should honeslty reflect the research you conducted." (Lipson 4)

Lipson, Charles. "Why Cite?"  Cite Right: A Quick Guide to Citation Styles--MLA, APA, Chicago, the Sciences, Professions, and More . Chicago: U of Chicago, 2006. Print.

What does a citation look like?

Different subject disciplines call for citation information to be written in very specific order, capitalization, and punctuation. There are therefore many different style formats. Three popular citation formats are MLA Style (for humanities articles) and APA or Chicago (for social sciences articles).

MLA style (print journal article):  

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles Vol. 49.3 (2003): 179-182.

APA style (print journal article):

Whisenant, W. A. (2003) How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX. Sex Roles , 49 (3), 179-182.

Chicago style (print journal article):

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles 49, no. 3 (2003): 179-182.

No matter which style you use, all citations require the same basic information:

• Author or Creator
• Container (e.g., Journal or magazine, website, edited book)
• Date of creation or publication
• Publisher 

You are most likely to have easy access to all of your citation information when you find it in the first place. Take note of this information up front, and it will be much easier to cite it effectively later.

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When starting your first research work, you will find that citations play one of the central roles in building originality, credibility, and respect for both your work and intellectual property in general. Understanding what a citation is and how to use it effectively is fundamental for anyone engaging in scholarly writing.

Definition of a Citation

A citation is a formal reference to a source from which information or ideas have been drawn. I t is a way to credit the original author and to provide the readers with the necessary information to find the source themselves. Citations are vital in academic writing as they lend support and credibility to the writer’s own ideas and arguments, and they can be created via a free citation generator .

The Role of Citations in Scholarly Work

Creating citations is an inseparable part of academic writing, primarily serving as a guard against the unethical practice of plagiarizing. Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s work or ideas without giving them due credit, and it is considered a serious offense in the academic world. Citing sources demonstrates that writers respect the original author’s intellectual property and acknowledge their contribution to the field.

Moreover, citations illustrate that the writer has engaged in extensive research, adding depth and credibility to their work. They act as a roadmap, allowing readers to follow the trail of research and thought processes that led to the conclusions drawn in the paper. This transparency contributes to the audience’s understanding and allows them to verify the data and ideas presented, making sure the integrity and reliability of the scholarly discourse. Therefore, citations are essential to maintaining the honesty and trustworthiness of academic communication.

Types of Citations

Understanding the different types of citations is key to crafting well-researched and credible work. Each citation style, whether it’s APA, MLA, or Chicago, serves a specific purpose and follows distinct guidelines that build clarity and uniformity in academic communication. From in-text citations that subtly acknowledge sources within your narrative, to detailed bibliographies that offer a comprehensive overview of your research, mastering these various forms enhances the integrity and impact of your writing.

In-text Citations

In-text citations are integral to most academic writing formats. An example of an in-text citation in APA style is:

> (Smith, 2020).

This format briefly acknowledges the source within the text, typically featuring the author’s last name and the publication year. The purpose of in-text citations is to point the reader towards the more detailed reference list entry, allowing them to easily locate the full source details without cluttering the main text with extensive information.

Reference List Citations

Reference list citations are found at the end of an academic paper and provide comprehensive details about each source. For instance, a typical APA reference list entry might look like:

> Smith, J. (2020). Title of the Work . Publisher.

This format includes the author’s name, publication year, title of the work, and publisher details. The reference list ensures that every source mentioned in the in-text citations is accounted for, with sufficient information for the reader to find the original work.

Footnotes and Endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes serve as supplemental tools for citations or additional comments. An example of a footnote in Chicago style might appear as a superscript number within the text, with the corresponding note at the bottom of the page:

> ¹Smith, Title of the Work , 45.

Footnotes are found at the bottom of the page where the reference is made, while endnotes appear collectively at the end of the chapter or document. They can include full citation details or additional insights related to the content, providing further depth and context to the main text.

Citation Styles and Formats

Common Issues and Mistakes in Citation

In the world of academic writing, navigating the intricacies of citation can often be challenging, and it’s all too easy to stumble into common pitfalls. Incorrect citation format is a frequent error, where writers might mix up the requirements of different citation styles, such as confusing APA with MLA. This can lead to confusion and misinterpretation of the source material. Another common issue is missing information in citations, like omitting the publication date or the publisher’s name. This lack of detail can make it difficult for readers to locate the original sources, thereby affecting the paper’s reliability.

Inconsistency in citation styles throughout a document is another area where writers often err. For instance, using APA style in one section and then inadvertently switching to Chicago style in another can create a disjointed reading experience. Such inconsistencies not only disrupt the flow of your writing but also question its scholarly rigor . To maintain the integrity and credibility of your work, it is crucial to be thorough and consistent in your citation practices, carefully adhering to the rules of the chosen citation style. Remember, in the realm of academic writing, precision, and attention to detail in citations are as important as the content itself.

Citations are more than just formalities. They are a testament to a writer’s integrity, attention to detail, and engagement with the scholarly community. Proper citation practices honor the originality of ideas while building a reliable and verifiable body of knowledge. As such, mastering the art of citation is a key skill in academic writing.

What information should be included in a citation?

A citation should typically include the author’s name, the title of the work, publication date, and other relevant details like the publisher’s name, journal title, volume and issue numbers, and page numbers. For digital sources, URLs or DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) are also essential.

Can I use online citation generators?

Yes, online citation generators can be used and are quite helpful in automating the citation process. However, it’s important to double-check the generated citations for accuracy, as these tools can sometimes make errors or be outdated in terms of citation style guidelines.

What are the consequences of not citing sources?

Not citing sources can lead to accusations of plagiarism, which is a serious academic offense. It can result in various consequences ranging from loss of credibility and academic penalties to legal repercussions. Proper citation is essential to maintain the integrity and reliability of your work.

Is there a difference between citing books and websites?

Yes, there is a difference in citing books and websites. Book citations typically require the author’s name, book title, publisher, and publication year. Website citations, however, often include the author’s name, title of the web page or article, the name of the website, the publication date, and the URL or DOI.

When do I need to use in-text citations?

In-text citations are used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source in the body of your text. These citations provide a brief acknowledgment of the source, typically including the author’s last name and publication year, which correspond to a more detailed entry in the reference list or bibliography.

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Research Skills Tutorial

• Turning A Topic Into A Research Question
• Getting Background Information About Your Topic
• Portfolio Activity 1
• Types of Information Sources
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• Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Information Sources
• Current and Retrospective Information Sources
• Information Sources for Different Audiences and Purposes
• Portfolio Activity 2
• Library Databases vs. the Web
• Creating a Concept Chart
• Boolean Operators
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• Advanced Searching
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• Descriptor Chaining
• Citation Chaining (or Reference Mining)
• Searching Outside the SUNY Empire Library
• Searching Google
• Portfolio Activity 3
• Understanding Search Results
• Saving Search Results
• Portfolio Activity 4
• Credible Sources
• What Does the Information Source Tell You About Itself?
• Reliability
• Some More About Validity
• Portfolio Activity 5
• What Is Citing?
• What Is a Citation?
• Citation Styles
• Citing Tools and Tips
• Practice Activity 6
• Practice Activity 7 - Final Project

What Is A Citation?

When to cite.

A citation is a reference to the source of information used in your research. Any time you directly quote, paraphrase or summarize the essential elements of someone else's idea in your work, an in-text citation should follow. An in-text citation is a brief notation within the text of your paper or presentation which refers the reader to a fuller notation, or end-of-paper citation , that provides all necessary details about that source of information. Direct quotations should be surrounded by quotations marks and are generally used when the idea you want to capture is best expressed by the source.  Paraphrasing and summarizing involve rewording an essential idea from someone else's work, usually to either condense the point or to make it better fit your writing style. You do not have to cite your own ideas, unless they have been published. And you do not have to cite  common knowledge , or information that most people in your audience would know without having to look it up.

In-Text Citations

In-text citations alert the reader to an idea from an outside source.  

Parenthetical Notes

In MLA and APA styles, in-text citations usually appear as parenthetical notes (sometimes called parenthetical documentation ). They are called parenthetical notes because brief information about the source, usually the author's name, year of publication, and page number, is enclosed in parentheses as follows:  

MLA style: (Smith 263)

APA style: (Smith, 2013, p. 263)  

Parenthetical notes are inserted into the text of the paper at the end of a sentence or paragraph:>

In MLA and APA styles, in-text citations are associated with end-of-paper citations that provide full details about an information source. Note: Different source types and situations require different information within the parentheses. Refer to a style guide for the style you are using for details.

Note Numbers

In Chicago and CSE styles, in-text citations usually appear as superscript numerals, or note numbers , as follows:

These note numbers are associated with full citations that can appear as footnotes (bottom of page), endnotes (end of chapter or paper), or lists of cited references at the end of the paper.  

End-of-Paper Citations

End-of-paper citations, as well as footnotes and endnotes, include  full details about a source of information.  Citations contain different pieces of identifying information about your source depending on what type of source it is. In academic research, your sources will most commonly be articles from scholarly journals, and the citation for an article typically includes:  

• article title
• publication information (journal title, date, volume, issue, pages, etc.)
• DOI (digital object identifier).
• URL of the information source itself
• URL of the journal that published the article

There are many other types of sources you might use, including books, book chapters, films, song lyrics, musical scores, interviews, e-mails, blog entries, art works, lectures, websites and more. To determine which details are required for a citation for a particular source type, find that source type within the style guide for the citation style you are using. At the end of your research paper, full citations should be listed in order according to the citation style you are using:

• In MLA style, this list is called a W orks Cited page.  
• In APA style, it is called a References page.
• In CSE style, it is called a C ited References page.
• And, in Chicago style, there may be both a Notes page and a Bibliography page. 

Citations  In Library Databases

When you search the library's databases for articles or e-books, the list of search results you see is actually a list of full citations. Instead of being formatted according to MLA, APA, CSE, or Chicago style, these citations are formatted according to the database vendor's style. It is up to you to take the source information you find in a library database (or elsewhere) and format it according to the citation style you are using.

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Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, citation – definition – introduction to citation in academic & professional writing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Explore the different ways to cite sources in academic and professional writing, including in-text (Parenthetical), numerical, and note citations.

Table of Contents

What is a Citation?

A “ citation ” refers to the act of integrating ideas or words from another source into your speech or writing , along with adhering to the specific discourse conventions (or standardized ways of acknowledging sources) in a particular academic or professional field . “Citations” are required in academic and professional writing when writers summarize , paraphrase , or quote the words or ideas others. Writers may also cite known experts to enhance the authority of their arguments and observations.

In both academic and professional settings, the practice of citing sources—whether through quotations , paraphrasing , or summarizing —is a fundamental mark of professionalism. Being capable of citing sources correctly and critiquing the citations of others is a basic literacy in a knowledge economy.

Most generally, “citation” refers to the act of crediting a source of information . While “citation” is the formal term, there are several colloquial synonyms that people might use interchangeably, such as “ attribution ,” “reference,” or “mention.” In more casual or conversational settings, phrases like “backing up” one’s claim or providing “proof” might be used. When writers or speakers incorporate information from an external source, they might say they are “citing,” “ attributing ,” or “referencing” that source.

Related Concepts: Academic Dishonesty ; Archive ; Authority in Academic Writing ; Canon ; Copyright ; Discourse ; Hermeneutics ; Information Has Value ; Intellectual Property ; Paraphrase ; Plagiarism ; Quotation ; Scholarship as a Conversation ; Summary

What Are The Three Major Ways of Citing Sources inside a Text?

While there are many different citation styles, as discussed below, there are only three major types of citations:

• In-text Citation (aka Parenthetical Citation)
• Numerical citation
• Note Citations

In-text Citation (aka Parenthetical Citation )

In-text Citation refers to the practice of placing bibliographical information in parentheses when sources/information are first introduced in a quote , paraphrase , or summary . The in-text citation is typically shorter and directs the reader to the full citation in the bibliography or reference list. In essence, all in-text citations are citations, but not all citations are in-text citations.

APA Example

When using APA style, writers place the author’s name, year, and page number (when available) in parentheses.

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than 9,400 are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” (Eagle, 2022).

And then at the end of their text, they list all of the sources they cited in the text, providing all of the bibliographical information users need to track down the source and read it:

• Eagle, J. (2022, March 21). Animated chart: Nuclear warheads by country (1945-2022). Visual Capitalist .

Numerical Citation

Numerical Citation refers to when writers use numbers in brackets or superscript rather than parentheses to indicate to readers when they are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing :

IEEE Example

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than 9,400 are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” [1]

Subsequently, in the reference list at the end of their text, writers provided the bibliographic information following the order of the citations in the text:

Chicago (Turabian) Example

• [1]J. Eagle, “Animated Chart: Nuclear Warheads by Country (1945-2022),” Visual Capitalist , Mar. 21, 2022. (accessed Jan. 03, 2023).

[ See Inclusive – Inclusive Language for a full-length example of Numerical Citations ]

Note Citation

Note Citations refers to when writers place citations numbers just as they do with numerical citations AND then provide all of the required bibliographical information in the text–as opposed to providing all that information at the end of the text in a list of references:

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than  9,400  are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” J. Eagle, “Animated Chart: Nuclear Warheads by Country (1945-2022),” Visual Capitalist , Mar. 21, 2022. (accessed Jan. 03, 2023).

What Do All Citations Styles Have in Common?

Regardless of which citation style is used, attributions typically provide four types of bibliographical information :

• Name of Author(s)
• Title of source, whether it’s a book/article/website, etc
• Date of publication, if available
• Publisher information.

What Are the Most Popular Citation Styles?

Professional organizations (communities of practice) have unique ways of formatting citations. (See Wikipedia for a good listing of citation styles .)

Although style guides differ in regard to where the author’s name or publishing source is listed, they are all designed to ensure that proper credit is given to authors. As you know from your experience as a writer, developing insights and conducting original research is difficult and time consuming, so you can understand why people want to receive proper credit for their original ideas.

• MLA Handbook, 9th Edition Modern Language Association style is primarily used in the fields of English and foreign languages.
• Publication Manual of the APA: 7th Edition American Psychological Association’s style guide is used in psychology and education. Education and social science professors commonly ask students to follow the APA style for citing and documenting sources. APA differs from MLA in a number of ways, including the overall structure and format of the essay, but the major distinction between the two is APA’s use of the year of publication, rather than the page on which a particular quotation appears, for the in-text citation. APA requires in-text publication dates because of the particular importance of a study’s currency to research reports in the social sciences.
• Chicago Style is used in many social science fields.
• CSE (Council of Science Editors) is used by the scientific community
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) is used by the engineering community.

What Critical Perspectives Do Readers Use to Assess Your Citations?

Citation in speech and writing serves as a barometer of ethos , especially trustworthiness . When audiences are engaged in critical literacy practices , they are likely to question a source’s

When audiences check the archive and find that authors are making inconsistent quotations , they are likely to question the character or ethos of the author.

In other words, subject matter experts tend to be well versed in the ongoing conversations that characterize the works of other subject matter experts. Experienced researchers tend to engage in strategic searching of the archive . They engage in critical literacy practices , asking questions, such as

• What is the status of knowledge on the topic ?
• What is the ebb and flow of research on the topic –over time?
• What are the canonical texts ?
• Who are the pioneers? How has their work changed the conversation?
• What knowledge claims are currently being debated?

Related Articles:

APA - Publication Manual of the APA: 7th Edition

Attribution - What Is The Role of Attribution In Academic & Professional Writing?

Citation Guide - Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

Citation Tools

MLA - MLA Handbook, 9th Edition

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Academic Writing – How to Write for the Academic Community

Structured Revision – How to Revise Your Work

Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

Credibility & Authority – How to Be Credible & Authoritative in Research, Speech & Writing

Citation Guide – Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

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• Joseph M. Moxley

Attribution refers to the practice of crediting original sources for information or ideas. It encompasses recognizing authors, understanding their credentials, and correctly citing their work in your own speech and...

Citation isn’t just about adhering to prescribed rules or ensuring each dot and comma is in its rightful place. It’s a rhetorical, fluid, intuitive process where writers must balance the...

Citation Tools (aka bibliography tools or citation managers) are software tools that (1) facilitate the processes of finding, tagging, and annotating sources and (2) automate the formatting processes for citations...

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What Are Citations?

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Last updated April 2018

Why Are Citations Important?

What Does a Citation Look Like?

A citation is typically found in two places:, in-text citations.

Reference Lists/Bibliographies

Authors use in-text citations after they have paraphrased, summarized, quoted or otherwise used another author’s work. Examples of in-text citations include parentheses, footnotes or endnotes.

Reference Lists

A reference list includes information on all of the sources an author used. It can also be called a bibliography or works cited. Each item in the list includes information such as title, author and publication date. A reference list is usually listed at the end of a paper with the exception of footnotes which are at the bottom of each page.

Reading a Citation

Knowing how to read a citation in a reference list or bibliography will help you identify different types of sources that an author used in their research. You can use a reference list from another researcher to find related sources on your topic, or to find counterpoints to your research. Let’s look at citations for three common types of sources:

Reading Citations: Article Citations

A citation for an article can include:.

Why is this important?

The journal title is often what is listed in library catalogs.

How do you know if it is an article?

The presence of two titles (article and journal) are the biggest clue that this is an article. Volume Number and Issue Number are also big clues as books will not have those pieces in a citation.

Reading Citations: Book Citations

A citation for a book can include:.

Year, edition, format, and publisher help distinguish between versions.

How do you know if it is a book?

Reading Citations: Website Citations

A citation for a website can include:.

To find and verify a website, you need to know the URL. Since websites change frequently, knowing the date accessed is similar to knowing a publication date.

How do you know if it is a website?

The date accessed and the presence of a URL are the biggest clues that you are looking at a citation for a website.

Citation Styles

Different disciplines cite in different ways which means that there are many different citation styles.

Your professor or department will tell you what style to use.

Style guides, manuals and handbooks are available both in print and online.

Citation Guides at the University Libraries

Examples of Citation Styles: Article Citations

Examples of Citation Styles: Book Citations

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What are citations review, you are now able to:, do you have questions.

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• Research Process
• Find Background Info
• Find Sources through the Library
• Evaluate Your Info
• Cite Your Sources
• Evaluate, Write & Cite

• is the right thing to do  to give credit to those who had the idea
• shows that you have read and understand  what experts have had to say about your topic
• helps people find the sources  that you used in case they want to read more about the topic
• provides   evidence  for your arguments
• is professional and  standard practice   for students and scholars

What is a Citation?

A citation identifies for the reader the original source for an idea, information, or image that is referred to in a work.

• In the body of a paper, the  in-text citation  acknowledges the source of information used.
• At the end of a paper, the citations are compiled on a  References  or  Works Cited  list. A basic citation includes the author, title, and publication information of the source. 

From:  Lemieux  Library,  University  of Seattle 

Why Should You Cite?

Quoting Are you quoting two or more consecutive words from a source? Then the original source should be cited and the words or phrase placed in quotes. 

Paraphrasing If an idea or information comes from another source,  even if you put it in your own words , you still need to credit the source.  General vs. Unfamiliar Knowledge You do not need to cite material which is accepted common knowledge. If in doubt whether your information is common knowledge or not, cite it. Formats We usually think of books and articles. However, if you use material from web sites, films, music, graphs, tables, etc. you'll also need to cite these as well.

Plagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own without proper acknowledgment of the source. When you work on a research paper and use supporting material from works by others, it's okay to quote people and use their ideas, but you do need to correctly credit them. Even when you summarize or paraphrase information found in books, articles, or Web pages, you must acknowledge the original author.

Citation Style Help

Helpful links:

• MLA ,  Works Cited : A Quick Guide (a template of core elements)
• CSE  (Council of Science Editors)

For additional writing resources specific to styles listed here visit the  Purdue OWL Writing Lab

Citation and Bibliography Resources

• How to Write an Annotated Bibliography
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The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

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What are Citations? – Role of Citations in Academic Research

Whether you are a student, a researcher, or just curious about citations in academic research , note that Citations are not just formalities or some text written at the bottom of an article, but they are the backbone of scholarly integrity and dialogue.

In this blog, we will delve into what citations are, their different styles, and why they are so important. 

Let’s begin.

What are Citations? – Definition, Styles and Components

Citations are like Signposts in the world of academic research. They tell us where an idea or piece of information originally came from. 

So, when you write a paper or do a project, citing your sources is a way of saying, “Here’s where I got this information.” It’s like giving credit or respect to the original author for their work that helped you in your research.

Styles of Citation – APA, MLA, and Chicago

There are different styles of citations, like APA, MLA, and Chicago. Each has its own rules about how to list the source’s details. 

For example, APA (American Psychological Association) is often used in psychology and education, MLA (Modern Language Association) in literature, and Chicago in history and other fields.

Also read: The Impact of AI on Scientific Research

How to Cite in APA, MLA, and Chicago Style?

Here’s the format to cite a book in different Citation formats 

• APA: Uses author-date format in-text (Author, Year), with full reference list entry including author(s), year, title, edition, publisher, and city/state of publication.
• MLA: Uses parenthetical format in-text (Author Page number), with a Works Cited list entry including author(s), title, edition, publisher, city/state of publication, and year.
• Chicago: Offers two main styles:

Notes and Bibliography: Uses footnotes for in-text citations, with a Bibliography list entry including author(s), title, edition, publisher, city/state of publication, and year.

Author-Date: Similar to APA, with author-date format in-text and a References list entry with additional details.

Let’s take an example of a book namely, “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee (1960),  and cite that in different styles.

In-text citation: (Lee, 1960)

Reference list entry: Lee, H. (1960). To kill a mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co.

In-text citation: (Lee)

Works Cited list entry: Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.

Chicago(Notes and Bibliography)

Footnote: Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird (J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960).

Bibliography: Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.

Chicago(Author-Date)

In-text citation: (Lee 1960)

References list entry: Lee, Harper. 1960. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co.

Importance of Citations in Academic Research

Citations in academic research play an important role. They are not just a formality, but a foundation of academic integrity and scholarly conversation. 

Now, let’s explore in more detail why citations are so important in academic writing.

• Establishing Credibility

When researchers use citations, they link their work to other experts’ ideas. This shows that they have read and understood their field’s existing knowledge. It’s like saying, “My research is built on solid ground.” 

So, citations make the research more credible because they show it’s backed by previous studies and facts.

• Avoiding Plagiarism

One of the biggest reasons for citations is to avoid plagiarism. 

Plagiarism is when someone uses someone else’s work without giving them credit. It’s like taking someone else’s work and saying it’s yours. It’s simply stealing! 

So, by citing sources, researchers give proper credit to the original authors. This respects their rights and efforts. It’s saying, “This idea or fact came from this person, not me.”

• Tracing Research History

Citations also create a path that others can follow to see how ideas in a field have developed over time. They are like breadcrumbs left by other researchers, guiding you through the forest of information. This is important for understanding the background of a topic. 

For example, if you’re researching the effects of climate change, citations can show you how ideas and data have evolved or changed over time.

Consequences of Poor Citation

Not citing sources properly can lead to big problems. It might look like you’re trying to take credit for others’ work, which is dishonest. This can damage your reputation, lead to academic penalties like failing a project, and even legal issues in serious cases. 

So, it’s important to cite correctly to avoid these issues.

Digital Tools for Citations

In today’s digital world, there are many digital tools and software that make managing citations easier. These tools help you collect, organize, and format your citations correctly, saving you a lot of time and effort.

Here are some of the most popular options:

A simple and user-friendly tool that supports common styles like APA, MLA, and Chicago. You can generate citations by entering source information in a form or importing the source directly.

• Scribbr Citation Generator

Offers free tools for generating citations in APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard styles. It also has a browser extension that lets you grab citation information directly from websites.

• Citation Machine

Another popular tool with support for over 7,000 citation styles. It offers a clean interface and additional features like checking for plagiarism.

Best Practices to Follow for Effective Citation

Citing sources effectively is key to good research. Below are some of the best citation practices to follow to ensure your research is trustworthy and your sources are credible and respectable.

• Understand the Citation Style

Different fields use different citation styles. Whether it’s APA, MLA, or Chicago, make sure you understand the rules of the style you are using. Each style has its way of formatting information, like the author’s name, publication date, and page numbers.

• Be Consistent

Consistency is crucial in citations. Stick to one citation style throughout your paper. Mixing different styles can confuse readers and make your work look unprofessional.

• Cite as You Write

Don’t wait until your paper is almost done to start citing sources. Cite as you go. This makes it less likely you’ll forget to cite something. Plus, it helps you keep track of your sources and ideas.

• Use Citation Tools

Take advantage of citation tools and software. These can help you organize your sources and format your citations correctly. They save time and help avoid errors.

• Check Your Citations

Always double-check your citations. Make sure every citation in your text matches up with a reference in your bibliography. And check that each reference has all the needed information.

• Stay Current with Citation Practices

Citation practices can change. Stay updated with the latest guidelines in your field. This is especially important with digital sources, as the way to cite them can evolve quickly.

Citations in academic research play a crucial role beyond simply listing references.  They are a testament to academic honesty and collaboration. They uphold the integrity of research, honor the contributions of others, and guide readers through the landscape of scholarly work. 

Whether you’re dealing with traditional sources or navigating the digital age, effective citation practices are fundamental. Remember, every citation you make is a step towards maintaining the trust and clarity that are the hallmarks of academic research.

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Fundamentals of APA

American Psychological Association (APA) style includes  parenthetical in-text citations  and a  reference list . 

APA uses  parenthetical citations  as its form of in-text citation. Provide a parenthetical citation  before the period  directly following the information you are citing. These citations should correspond to a more detailed citation in the reference list but only need to specify a page number if directly quoting or borrowing from the source material. The essential elements for this in-text citation are the author's last name and the date for the specific publications. The last name may be omitted if the sentence states or makes clear the source material.

APA uses a  reference list ,  an alphabetized list of sources following the end of the book or paper,  for its complete list of sources referenced. This list should be titled "References" in bold and alphabetized by the first item in the citation, which, in most cases, is the author's last name. Each reference from this list must be cited in your paper and vice versa.

Basic Format

Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year of publication). Title . Publisher Name.

Print Articles

Author Last Name, Author First Initial, & Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year). Article Title. Periodical Title , volume number(issue number), pages.

Electronic Articles

Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year). Article Title. Periodical Title , volume number(issue number), pages. doi or static url.

Physical Images/Artwork

Artist Last Name, Artist First Initial. (Year). Artwork Title [medium]. Host Institution Name, City, State, Country. URL of institution.

Electronic Images/Artwork

Artist Last Name, Artist First Initial. (Year). Image Title [medium]. Source Title. URL of image.

In-text Citation Examples

Standard case :

"Lorem   ipsum  dolor sit  amet ,  consectetur   adipiscing   elit" (Last name, 2000, p.10).

If the author is not available , the title of the source may be used:

Lorem   ipsum  dolor sit  amet ,  consectetur   adipiscing   elit ("Source title", 2000, pp.10-11).

If multiple authors cited have the same last name , use the author's first initial along with their last name:

"Lorem   ipsum  dolor sit  amet ,  consectetur   adipiscing   elit" (E. Bronte, 1847, p.10).

Lorem   ipsum  dolor sit  amet ,  consectetur   adipiscing   elit (C. Bronte, 1847, p.10).

Full Citation Examples for the Reference List

Archival material :

Child, J. (1974).  Journal, 1974 . [Unpublished journal].  Papers of Julia Child, 1925-1993(MC 644, item 4).  Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe Institute,  https://id.lib.harvard.edu/ead/c/ sch00222c00006 /catalog .

Child, P. (1967). Julia Child at the White House [Photograph]. Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe Institute, https://id.lib.harvard.edu/images/olvwork539731/urn-3:RAD.SCHL:4510469/catalog.

Beck, S., Bertholle, L., & Child, J. (1961).  Mastering the art of French cooking.  Knopf.

Child, J. & Child, P. (1968).  The French chef cookbook . Alfred A. Knopf .

Journal article :

Muneal, M. (2011).  Studies in Popular Culture , 34(1), 152–154. www.jstor.org/stable/23416357.

Nussbaum, D. (2005). "In Julia Child's Kitchen, October 5 1998".  Gastronomica , 5(3), 29-38. doi: 10.1525/gfc.2005.5.3.29.

• APA Style website The online version of the APA Style Manual, this website offers to help with the technical elements of formatting in APA as well as writing and citing your work.
• Purdue OWL APA Guide The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) is one of the most complete citation guides available online. The APA Guide explains how to format a paper in APA and breaks down citations by type with numerous examples.
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Identifying Parts of a Citation

• Identifying Types of Sources
• Why Citing Sources is Important

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Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves three purposes:

• It gives proper credit to the authors of the words or ideas that you incorporated into your paper.
• It allows those who are reading your work to locate your sources, in order to learn more about the ideas that you include in your paper.
• Citing your sources consistently and accurately helps you avoid committing plagiarism in your writing.

If you cite a source in your bibliography simply like this:

http://0-search.proquest.com.library.anselm.edu/sciencejournals/docview/963513704/FCC731C646FD481FPQ/8?accountid=13640

it does technically indicate where you found it, and someone might be able to find it again. But :

• What if the URL breaks?
• What if your reader doesn't have access to Geisel Library's databases? (This is the URL to the PDF view of a journal article in the database ProQuest Science Journals.)

A good citation makes it easy for the reader to figure out the who, what, when, and where of the source. In MLA style, a citation also often indicates how it was accessed.

Within MLA style, the format of the citation also tells you "what"--that this source is a journal article that you accessed through an online database.

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What Is a Citation?

Definition, Styles, and Examples

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In any research paper, you draw on the work of other researchers and writers, and you must document their contributions by citing your sources, say Diana Hacker and Nancy Sommers in "A Pocket Style Manual, Eighth Edition." Citations, then, are the means by which you credit other researchers and writers when you use their work in your papers. Understanding how to cite sources can be tricky, particularly since there are different styles for writing papers , including the American Psychological Association, Modern Language Association, and Chicago (Turabian) styles. Electronic sources also come with their own specific citation rules in each of these styles. It's important to learn proper citation styles to avoid  plagiarism  in your research papers.

APA Citations

American Psychological Association (APA) style is often used in social sciences and other disciplines. With APA or any of the styles listed in this paper, you need to use a citation if you quote text from another source, paraphrase an author or authors' ideas, or refer to her work, such as a study, original thinking, or even an elegant turn of phrase. When you cite a source, you can't simply repeat most of the words from the work to which you are referring. You have to put the ideas into your own words, or you need to quote the text directly.

There are two parts to citations for APA and other styles: the short-form in line, which directs readers to a full entry at the end of a chapter or book. An in-line citation differs from a footnote, which is a note placed at the bottom of a page. An in-line citation—also called the  in-text citation —is placed within a line of text. To create an in-line citation, cite the name of the author and the date (in parentheses) of the article, report, book, or study, as this example from "A Pocket Style Manual" shows:

Cubuku (2012) argued that for a student-centered approach to work, students must maintain "ownership for thier goals and activities" (p. 64).

Note how you list the page number at the end of the in-text citation in parentheses followed by a period (if it is at the end of a sentence). If there are two authors, list the last name of each, as in:

"According to Donitsa-Schmidt and Zurzovsky (2014), ..."

If there are more than two authors, list the last name of the first author followed by the words "et al.," as in:

Herman et al. (2012) tracked 42 students over a three-year period (p. 49).

At the end of your paper, attach one or more pages titled "References." That section is essentially your biography. Readers of your paper can then turn to the references listing to read the full citations for each of the works you cited. There are actually many variations for references citations depending, for example, on whether you are citing a book, journal article, or newspaper story, or the many different kinds of media, including audio recordings and film.

the most common citation is to books. For such a citation, list the last name of the author, followed by a comma, followed by the first initial(s) of the author(s), followed by a period. You would put the year the book was published in parentheses followed by a period, then the title of the book in italics using sentence case , followed by a comma, the place of publication, followed by a colon, and then the publisher, followed by a period. "A Pocket Style Manual" gives this example:

Rosenberg, T. (2011). Join the club: How peer pressure can transform the world . New York, NY: Norton.​

Though the citations here won't print this way, use a hanging indent for the second and any subsequent lines in each citation. In a hanging indent in APA style, you indent every line after the first.

MLA Citations

MLA style is often used in English and other humanities papers. MLA follows the author-page style for in-text citations, notes Purdue OWL, an excellent citation, grammar, and writing website operated by Purdue University. Purdue gives this example of an in-text citation, which is also called parenthetical citation in MLA style. Note that in MLA style, page numbers don’t typically appear unless the sentence or passage is a direct quote from the original, as is the case here:

Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263).

At the end of the paper, attach a "Works Cited" page or pages, which is equivalent to the "References" section in APA style. "Works Cited" section citations are very similar in MLA and APA style, as in this example of a work with multiple authors from Purdue OWL:

Warner, Ralph, et al.  How to Buy a House in California . Edited by Alayna Schroeder, 12th ed., Nolo, 2009.

Note that you would also use a hanging indent in MLA, but it tends to be a bit shorter; move the second and subsequent lines in by three spaces. Spell out the first name of the author(s) in MLA style; add a comma before "et al."; use title case for the book, journal, or article title; omit the place of publication information; follow the name of the publisher with a comma; and list the date of publication at the end.

Chicago Style Citations

Chicago is the oldest of the three major writing and citation styles in the United States, having begun with the 1906 publication of the first Chicago style guide. For in-text citations, Chicago style, which comes from the "Chicago Manual of Style" from the University of Chicago Press, is pretty simple: the author's last name, date of publication, a comma, and page numbers, all in parentheses, as follows:

(Murav 2011, 219-220)

At the end of the paper, insert a list of references, which in Chicago style is called a bibliography. Books, journals, and other articles are cited in a manner similar to APA and MLA style. List the author's last name, a comma, and the full first name, followed by the title of the book in italics and title case, the place of publication, followed by a colon, followed by the publisher's name, a comma, and the date of publication, all in parentheses, followed by a comma and the page numbers.

Kate L. Turabian, in "A Manual for Writers" (a student-geared version of Chicago style), gives the following example:

Gladwell, Malcolm,  The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference  (Boston: Little Brown, 2000), 64-65.

You also use a hanging indent in the bibliography section of a Chicago style paper, with the indent moved in three spaces. For article or journal titles, list the title in regular (not italic) type encased in quotation marks.

Electronic Sources

Electronic source citations are similar to citations of published works except for two issues: You need to include the URL of the source, and a large percentage of online sources may not list an author. 

In APA style, for example, list an online source in the same way you would cite a book or article, except that you need to include the type of information you are accessing (in parentheses), as well as the URL. If the online source lacks a listed author, start with the name of the group or agency providing the information. "A Pocket Manual of Style" provides the following example of an APA electronic source citation:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (2011). Daily intake of nutrients by food source: 2005-08 . ​[Data set]. Retrieved from http:www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-consumption-and-nutrient-intakes.aspx.

As with other citations, use a hanging indent for the second, third, and fourth lines of this source. For Chicago style, use the same method as described previously but add the URL, as in this example:

Brown, David. "New Burden of Disease Study Shows World's People Living Longer but with More Disability," Washington Post , December 12, 2012. http://www.washingtonpost.com/.

Note that Chicago style includes only the home-page URL and not the full URL; that can change, however, from one regime to the next.

MLA style used to require you to list the date you accessed the information, but that's no longer the case. To cite an electronic source, use the same style as discussed previously, but replace the period after the date with a comma and then list the URL.

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Significance and implications of accurate and proper citations in clinical research studies

Citations are an essential component of clinical research studies. In health sciences most articles will refer to over 20 other peer-reviewed publications [ 1 ]. Citations are a core part of the entire research process. Citations fuel literature reviews [ 2 , 3 ] and they allow researchers to link their experiments to previous results and conclusions and establish credibility [ 2 , 4 , 5 ]. Citations can help authors contribute to the growing compilation of literature and prevent plagiarism [ 6 , 7 ]. However, prior studies have acknowledged a prevalence of improper citation [ [8] , [9] , [10] , [11] ]. Studies report citation inaccuracy rates of approximately 20–26% in biomedical literature [ 8 , 9 ]. Some studies have also reported citation inaccuracies within field-specific journals such as pediatric orthopaedics [ 8 ], neurosurgery [ 12 ], spine surgery [ 13 ], and foot and ankle surgery [ 14 ]. This trend is especially alarming as citation inaccuracies can diminish research validity [ 15 ]. Recognizing the causes or instances of inaccurate citations can prevent further improper citation [ 16 ].

1. What are the root causes of citation inaccuracies?

Citation misuse can originate in literature reviews, as authors can find and choose references in arbitrary fashions. This can stem from keyword choice; many authors use broad keywords to garner a large audience, but this can hurt the number of references they receive [ 17 ]. Language can also be a barrier: one study found over 30% of systematic reviews excluded studies not published in English, which dramatically decreases the scope of literature reviews [ 18 ]. Researchers may also be biased towards articles with many citations. This can be described as the ‘Matthew effect:’ the more a paper is referenced, the more it will continue to be referenced [ 19 , 20 ]. This is concerning as citation rate of articles is not necessarily an indicator of quality or significance [ 21 ]. While papers with many citations continue to receive attention, less cited articles may be neglected, potentially hindering research advancements.

Literature reviews may also be influenced by other arbitrary factors. For example, an author's social media presence showed a positive correlation with the rate at which they were cited [ 22 , 23 ]. Another consideration for citation rate is the primacy effect, which describes how citations listed earlier in a study are used more frequently than those that appear toward the end of a study [ 24 ]. The reputation of the author(s), organization(s), journal, or country represented by a paper may also play a role in the number of times it is cited [ 25 ]. Some authors or groups of authors may receive an increased number of citations based on their production level or experience in the field of study [ 25 ]. Additionally, luck and last name may inevitably affect the rate at which someone is repeatedly cited.

2. What are examples of citation inaccuracies?

Selective citation, whether purposeful or subconscious, is an endemic problem [ 11 , 26 , 27 ]. Studies showing positive results are cited more often than those with neutral or negative results, a phenomenon known as citation bias [ 26 ]. This gives readers a biased view and overrepresents positive findings [ 26 ]. Other common forms of improper citation usage include: secondary citation, incorrect/opposite conclusion, back door invention, fact not found, and inaccurate population. Secondary citation, or “amplification,” is the act of citing a fact in a paper that was itself supported by a citation instead of going to the original article [ 16 ]. Amplification leads to the expansion of a belief without additional primary data [ 10 ]. Incorrect/opposite conclusion occurs when inaccurate or missing information is cited. Specifically, an author may cite an article presenting the opposite conclusion referred to in the study [ 16 ]. This error is especially detrimental as studies make claims contradicting the citation, yet this contradiction may be further perpetuated in future studies via amplification. “Back door invention” is the error of citing abstracts while leading the reader to believe it is a peer-reviewed article [ 10 ]. Fact not found consists of a claim that a cited article has stated a fact or statistic, when in reality did not mention it at all and is therefore unsupported [ 16 ]. Lastly, inaccurate population involves the referencing of a study which may have found the results reported, but the results obtained in the cited article may not be generalizable to the population in the new study [ 16 ]. Research has also shown that citation of retracted studies occurs in many fields and these studies are often cited positively [ [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] ]. One study showed that even after 5 years, retracted studies by an author were still being cited, with only 25% of citations acknowledging it had been retracted [ 31 ].

3. What can be done to prevent or correct citation inaccuracies?

Solutions to many of these problems have been shared [ [15] , [16] , [17] , 22 , 23 ]. Authors can help others find their research by using targeted rather than generic keywords [ 17 ]. Similarly, a social media presence by journals and authors may be warranted to improve discoverability [ 22 , 23 ]. While not feasible for all literature reviews, machine learning has been used in finding relevant references for systematic reviews [ 32 ]. In short, machine learning is a form of artificial intelligence that allows systems to create algorithms based on data received. Future improvements in machine learning may allow for widespread use in finding and citing references in a way that is both efficient and accurate. One solution that has been proposed is the development of a tool named MyCites [ 33 ]. This tool would allow for the ability to mark citations as inaccurate and have these notations travel with the digital document so that future readers are aware of the accuracy of any contested citations [ 33 ]. These capabilities may help to stifle early citation inaccuracies and prevent the amplification of inaccurate citations.

Given the prevalence of citation inaccuracies, it is imperative those involved in the peer review process review submissions with an eye toward citation accuracy. At the start, authors must thoroughly recheck their citations and verify the relevance and validity of each reference. [ 34 ] One survey showed that only 4% of published scientists regularly check citations in articles they read [ 3 ]. Some authors have suggested that a simple checklist would avoid most errors [ 16 ]. It has also been suggested that editors develop training courses for authors outlining the acceptable citation styles pertinent to a particular journal [ 34 ]. Reviewers are in the unique role of making sure that new submissions are, evidence-based, in publishable condition, and add to the current body of knowledge. Such responsibility also includes evaluating the references of these submissions and suggesting the alteration, removal, or addition of references which would ensure citation accuracy [ 34 ]. The peer review process can help correct citation mistakes, especially through increased spot checks by editors/reviewers [ 9 ]. Lastly, the publisher's role in citation accuracy has started to include the use of software to process, link, and check the quality of references. [ 35 ] The increased utilization of new technology to verify citation accuracy will be of great benefit to both researchers and readers.

We also seek to share common guidelines for proper citation. First, ensure the citation provides correct publication details, including name, article title, and journal [ 15 ]. Second, the citation must substantiate the claim [ 15 ]. Next, authors should use unbiased sources that provide reliable data [ 15 ]. Articles from prestigious journals should not be assumed as reliable; analysis of the article itself is critical [ 15 ]. Additionally, be mindful of reconciling evidence. Authors should present the information in an objective manner [ 15 ]. In research it is crucial for “evidence to guide conclusions.” [ 36 ] Citations are an important part of the scientific process. They allow researchers to support and share findings, helping to further innovation. However, citations can be misused, slowing progress in clinical research and circulating unsupported beliefs. Many problems with citations can be fixed with increased attention to detail by authors and editors, ultimately strengthening credibility of the literature.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Sources of funding

Author contribution.

Study design and conception: AE. Data collection, interpretation and analysis: MN, CA, AE. Manuscript preparation: MN, CA, AE, MM. Critical revision of manuscript: MN, CA, MM, AE. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Trial registry number

• 1. Name of the registry:
• 2. Unique Identifying number or registration ID:
• 3. Hyperlink to the registration (must be publicly accessible):

Adel Elkbuli.

Mark McKenney

Declaration of competing interest

What are the four types of academic citation?

This is the first of three chapters about Citation Types . To complete this reader, read each chapter carefully and then unlock and complete our materials to check your understanding.   

– Introduce the concepts of referencing and academic citations

– Explore the source-based information that should and should not be cited in an academic assignment

– Provide examples of the four types of citation

Chapter 1: What are the four types of academic citation?

Chapter 2: Should I mix integral and non-integral citations?

Chapter 3: How can I use multiple and secondary citations?

Before you begin reading...

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Because referencing is an academic process that’s rarely required outside of academic contexts, many students find it somewhat challenging at first to know precisely when and how to reference. With many aspects to consider such as endnotes and footnotes , reference lists , citations   and search terms , it’s no wonder that new university students feel a little confused at first. This short reader on citation types   is therefore intended to help clarify this subject for students by introducing the concepts and kinds of citations (Chapter 1), by focusing specifically on integral and non-integral citation types (Chapter 2) and by exploring how multiple and secondary citations are correctly used in academic assignments .

What are citations?

Whenever you include concepts, definitions, ideas or evidence in your work that are originally taken from another source , you will be required at university to acknowledge to the reader that you’ve done so. The reasons for this are: (1) so that you do not take credit for someone else’s work, (2) so that you can avoid being accused of plagiarism , and (3) so that your tutors and anyone reading your assignment can locate, verify and potentially use the same sources that you used.

To acknowledge every published source that’s included as support for your work, you’ll need to use citations . As can be seen in the examples below, citations are short pieces of text that indicate the family names of the source authors, the year of publication of that source, and sometimes also the page numbers or URL:

When are citations used?

Citations are most often (though not always) placed at the very end of sentences , such as in the two examples (a) and (b) below:

However, knowing exactly when and when not to use citations can be challenging for some students, particularly for the first few essays  they write. As a general rule, the following features should always be cited in an academic essay:

• Facts and statistics ✔
• Diagrams and images ✔
• Difficult concepts or subject-specific vocabulary ✔
• Other people’s arguments, claims, ideas and opinions ✔

The following features, however, should not be cited:

• The writer’s own opinions X
• The writer’s personal experiences X
• Commonly known dates, events or facts X

What are the different types of citation?

There are four different types of citation  that students should learn to use in their academic assignments. These four types are:

1. Integral Citations

2. Non-Integral Citations

3. Multiple-Source Citations

4. Secondary Citations

As will be explained in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3, each of these citation types   is used for slightly different reasons and in slightly different ways. Using the examples below for each of these four types, can you guess how and why these citations might are used differently?

In brief, while integral citations (1) come at the beginning of a sentence   and place an emphasis on the researcher or source  author, non-integral citations (2) remove such emphasis by being placed in brackets at the end of a sentence or clause . Multiple-source citations (3) , on the other hand, which are generally used sparingly by writers, are required when more than one source is being cited at any one time, perhaps to provide additional strength to a fact or argument. Finally, secondary citations (4) might also be used if the writer wishes to indicate that the information being cited is from a source that they haven’t directly read.

To learn more about these four citation types , students should continue studying with Chapters 2 and 3 of this subject. Students may also wish to check their understanding of this chapter by unlocking our Chapter 1 activities. 

Please note: while there are many different possible  referencing styles such as  APA   or Chicago , all examples demonstrated in this chapter are of the Harvard Style   of referencing as described in the book Cite Them Right .

To reference this reader:

Academic Marker (2022) Citation Types.  Available at: https://academicmarker.com/academic-guidance/referencing/referencing-features/citation-types/ (Accessed: Date Month Year).

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Once you’ve completed all three chapters in this short reader about Citation Types , you might then wish to download our Chapter Worksheets to check your progress or print for your students. These professional PDF worksheets can be easily accessed for only a few Academic Marks .

Chapter 1 explores the topic: What are the four types of academic citation? Our Chapter 1 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

Lesson 2 explores the topic: Should I mix integral and non-integral citations? Our Chapter 2 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

Chapter 3 explores the topic: How can I use multiple and secondary citations? Our Chapter 3 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

To save yourself 2 Marks , click on the button below to gain unlimited access to all of our Citation Types Lesson Worksheets. This  All-in-1 Pack includes every lesson, activity and answer key related to this topic in one handy and professional PDF.

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APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)

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In-Text Citations

Resources on using in-text citations in APA style

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Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats

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Citation Analysis

Citation analysis: terms to know, limits to citation analysis.

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Citation analysis: A wide-ranging area of bibliometrics that studies the citations to and from documents.   Citation analysis applies various techniques such as citation counts that can help establish scholarship influence and patterns. Unlike common database searching by Author or Subject, citation searching tracks where works (articles, books, conference proceedings, etc) have been cited by other authors.

Citation count/ citation rate/ citation frequency: often refers to the number of citations an author, document, or journal has received during a certain period of time. If expressed as a ratio, especially for a group of documents published by a particular journal, citation rate becomes equivalent to impact factor. 

Impact factor : A measure of the importance or influence of a group of documents. Speaking imprecisely, impact factor is the number of citations received by an average document in the group.

Journal Impact Factor: The number of cited articles in a particular journal may be used to demonstrate the relative importance of that journal within a discipline or specialty area. This "journal impact factor" is tracked by InCites, which is associated with Web of Science and is proprietary. Other measures (e.g. the h-index) can also be used to evaluate the impact that a journal has in its field. Scopus and SciMago compete with InCites with a similar metric called the SJR.

Eugene Garfield, the origin of the idea of an impact factor in 1955, has authored an article that explains its history. Garfield E. The History and Meaning of the Journal Impact Factor. JAMA. 2006;295(1):90-93. doi:10.1001/jama.295.1.90.

Counting the number of times a publication has been cited is attractive because it is concrete data. However, citation analysis tools have extensive limitations discussed below.  Results should therefore be used in conjunction with other indicators of quality when presented in support of a case for promotion and tenure.

Keep the following caveats in mind when evaluating research quality using citation indicators:

• No citation database is all inclusive. Citation databases do not track citations for every journal. Journals from some fields may be poorly represented and citation results will reflect this disparity between fields.
• Some disciplines have less extensive citation activity than others. Most research work in scientific fields attracts far more citations than does research in many humanities fields.
• Recent research may not be cited. The time lag or immediacy factor varies significantly in different fields. Some scientific fields experience rapid citation at the research front, while others take years for research to be noticed.
• Citation rates can be influenced by such factors as few authors citing one another or by an author's high rates of self-citation. Poor quality papers may have a high citation count because they are cited while being criticized or refuted. 
• Entries in citation databases may not be standard or follow a consistent name-authority scheme. Errors made by citing authors or by indexers may make it difficult to retrieve complete citation counts.
• Common authors' name forms are very difficult to separate from other similar names (especially in citation indexes that rely on initials instead of full names). Advances in indexing quality, however, have improved the identification of authors' identities. Searching by title of a work as opposed to author name is a sure way of avoiding this problem.
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• Last Updated: Mar 25, 2024 8:30 AM
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Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Citation and Reference

While writing an article, one must quote or refer to the original source of the information, fact or idea, from which it has been taken. It not just to supports your own points, but also to prevent plagiarism and denote that a variety of sources are used to write the piece.

And so, the author provides citations, which are correspondingly mentioned under the head reference, indicating the complete details of the resource. In this article, we are going to talk about the differences between citation and reference.

Content: Citation Vs Reference

Comparison chart.

Definition of Citation

In the citation, the author cites or refer to the source in the text to represent that the information is derived from an external source and to mention that source, in brief. Basically, it is an abbreviated reference, which you can find in the main body of the article or assignment, addressing the source of a quote, image, video, paraphrase, chart, table, etc. Due to this very reason, it is also called as “in-text citation”, which includes a set of parenthesis.

Simply put, it is a short notation, within the intellectual work, which points out to a complete notation, at the end of the page, providing full details of the source i.e. all the authors or publications which have been cited, are to be mentioned in the list of references.

Citation is like a credit to the author, editor or publisher, for their work and to help the readers in consulting the same source when they want more information in this regard. While citing the source of information in the document, you indicate the last name of author and year of publication.

Definition of Reference

Reference can be understood as the list of items which you have read and considered in your piece of work. While providing references, the author actually tells its readers about what kind of source he/she has used in the document.

Along with that it also helps the readers to identify the difference between the author’s words, theories and ideas and those of other authors. Further, it helps the reader to refer to the source for further information in that area, whenever required.

You can find references at the end of the document or article (before bibliography), in alphabetical order, by the first or main author’s last name. One should always use a genuine, reliable and authentic source of information, to ensure support, credence and authority, to the information, ideas and arguments stated.

Reference can be given to books, articles from journals, legal documents, webpage, blogs, official report of government departments and agencies, interview transcripts, conference papers, newspaper articles, films, television, video, etc.

Key Differences Between Citation and Reference

The difference between citation and reference can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

• Citation can be understood as a formal abbreviated reference, in the main part of your text, which clearly and uniquely identifies the author and publication year, from which the details are derived. On the other hand, a reference list is nothing but a list of resources which you have used particularly for writing your article or assignment and also while performing the research.
• With the help of citation, you inform your readers, about the source, from where the information is extracted. As against, in the case of reference, the reader gets to know about the complete source of information.
• Citations are mainly used to show the source of the material taken. Conversely, references are mainly used to support or critique an argument or point.
• While reference is found as endnote or at the end of the page, the citation is the bracketed piece of information, which informs the reader about the source of material.
• When it comes to information, the reference provides more information than citation. A reference provides all the details of the source, such as author’s name, the title of the book, date of publication and page number, whereas in citation provides a few details only such as year of publication and last name of the author.

Basically, reference and citation are provided to give the user or reader, the source of facts, images, statistics, charts, tables and diagrams, which are a part of the article or assignment. It may also be used when you are talking about a theory, method or model, discovered by or linked to a specific person or writer.

With the help of these two, the author shows acknowledgement to those scholars, whose work or ideas has been used in the article or assignment.

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Understanding citation styles meaning for research writing.

Home » Understanding Citation Styles Meaning for Research Writing

Citation Styles Comprehension is crucial for effective research writing, as it establishes credibility and ensures academic integrity. When engaging with academic literature, researchers must navigate various citation formats, each reflecting different disciplines and publishing standards. This foundational knowledge empowers writers to present their findings clearly and responsibly.

Understanding how to apply these styles can significantly enhance the quality of research. By using the correct format, researchers not only give credit to original authors but also guide readers in locating those sources. In the realm of academia, mastering citation styles is not just a technical skill; it's an essential aspect of scholarly communication, fostering trust and reliability within the research community.

Importance of Citation Styles

Understanding the importance of citation styles is crucial for any research writer. Effective citation provides clarity and credibility to research projects, allowing readers to trace sources and build upon existing knowledge. Citation styles, such as APA, MLA, and Chicago, serve as structured frameworks that help maintain academic integrity, enabling researchers to share ideas responsibly.

Familiarity with various citation styles fosters Citation Styles Comprehension, which enhances the overall writing process. Researchers become adept at organizing their references, which improves the readability and professionalism of their work. Moreover, mastering these styles aids in avoiding plagiarism, a serious offense in academia. By understanding the nuances of citation practices, researchers can effectively contribute to their fields while showcasing their expertise and commitment to ethical writing.

Why Citation Styles Matter

Citation styles comprehension is essential in research writing, as they provide a consistent framework for citing sources. This consistency enables readers to trace original materials, fostering trust in academic integrity. By adhering to specific citation styles, researchers clarify the connections between their work and previous studies, enhancing the credibility of their arguments.

Understanding different citation styles also influences the overall presentation of research. Accuracy in citations prevents plagiarism while showcasing the writer's attention to detail. This meticulousness reflects the author's commitment to their academic field, ultimately influencing the reception of their work. Moreover, using appropriate citation styles aids in organizing references, making it easier for others to locate and verify sources. Thus, comprehending citation styles plays a pivotal role in the quality and reliability of research writing.

Impacts on Research Credibility

Research credibility hinges significantly on Citation Styles Comprehension. When researchers accurately adopt citation styles, it showcases their commitment to scholarly integrity. Proper citations allow readers to trace sources, thereby enhancing the transparency of the research. This process helps to establish the researchers’ authority and fosters trust within the academic community.

A lack of proper citation can lead to misunderstandings or misrepresentations of an author's work. Consequently, this could diminish the perceived credibility of the research itself. Accurately citing sources not only acknowledges the contributions of others but also situates the research within a broader academic discussion. In essence, mastering citation styles is crucial in cultivating a trustworthy scholarly reputation and ensuring that findings are recognized and valued by peers.

Citation Styles Comprehension: A Detailed Look

Understanding Citation Styles Comprehension is essential in research writing, as it provides the framework for giving proper credit to sources. In academic writing, clarity and consistency in citation styles enhance the credibility of your work. Different disciplines often require specific styles, including APA, MLA, and Chicago. Each style has unique rules for formatting citations, which makes understanding these distinctions crucial for successful research communication.

Proper citation not only prevents plagiarism but also allows readers to track down original sources effortlessly. By mastering Citation Styles Comprehension, researchers can present their arguments with authority and respect for intellectual property. Familiarizing yourself with various citation formats can significantly enhance the quality of your writing while ensuring transparency. As you delve into the intricacies of citation styles, consider the importance of accuracy, adherence to guidelines, and the role of citations in supporting your ideas.

Common Citation Styles Explained

Understanding common citation styles is essential for effective research writing. Different fields have established specific conventions, making it crucial to know which style to use. Among the most recognized styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago, each serving distinct purposes.

1. APA (American Psychological Association) : Widely used in social sciences, APA emphasizes the date of publication, reflecting the importance of recent research.

2. MLA (Modern Language Association) : Common in humanities, particularly literature, MLA focuses on authorship and places less emphasis on publication dates.

3. Chicago Style : This versatile style accommodates both notes-bibliography and author-date formats, making it suitable for various academic disciplines.

By grasping these citation styles, researchers can enhance their writing's clarity and professionalism. Knowing which format to apply allows for proper attribution, fostering academic integrity in all research endeavors.

Differences Between Citation Styles

When examining the differences between citation styles, it’s important to recognize that each style caters to specific academic disciplines and has unique rules. For instance, APA style, commonly used in social sciences, emphasizes the date of publication, reflecting the importance of current research. In contrast, MLA style, often used in humanities, highlights the author's name and page number, showcasing the text's location.

Another notable difference is the format of citations and bibliographies. Chicago style offers a flexible system with footnotes for detailed referencing, which can be particularly beneficial for historical research. Harvard style, on the other hand, employs parenthetical citations and is favored in various fields for its straightforwardness. Understanding these variances is crucial for proper citation styles comprehension in research writing, ensuring academic integrity and enhancing the credibility of your work.

Conclusion: Enhancing Research Through Citation Styles Comprehension

Understanding Citation Styles Comprehension is essential for effective research writing. By grasping the nuances of various citation styles, researchers can enhance the clarity and credibility of their work. When properly applied, these styles offer a structured way to attribute sources, which ultimately enriches the academic discourse.

Moreover, mastering citation styles can facilitate a smoother writing process. It not only helps in avoiding plagiarism but also promotes the responsible use of sources, reflecting the integrity of the research. As researchers improve their comprehension of citation styles, they contribute more valuable insights to their fields, ensuring that their work stands on a solid foundation of credibility and respect for intellectual property.

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DOIs and URLs

This page addresses when to include digital object identifiers (DOIs) and uniform resource locators (URLs) in APA Style references. Also check out the related topic of when to include database information in references .

The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.

• A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works.
• A URL specifies the location of digital information on the internet and can be found in the address bar of your internet browser. URLs in references should link directly to the cited work when possible.

When to include DOIs and URLs

Follow these guidelines for including DOIs and URLs in references:

• Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version.
• If a print work does not have a DOI, do not include any DOI or URL in the reference.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• For works without DOIs from websites (not including academic research databases), provide a URL in the reference (as long as the URL will work for readers).
• For works without DOIs from most academic research databases , do not include a URL or database information in the reference because these works are widely available. The reference should be the same as the reference for a print version of the work.
• For works from databases that publish original, proprietary material available only in that database (such as the UpToDate database) or for works of limited circulation in databases (such as monographs in the ERIC database), include the name of the database or archive and the URL of the work. If the URL requires a login or is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database or archive home page or login page instead of the URL for the work. See the page on including database information in references for more information.
• If the URL is no longer working or no longer provides readers access to the content you intend to cite, follow the guidance for works with no source .
• Other alphanumeric identifiers such as the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) and the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) are not included in APA Style references.

DOIs and URLs are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Sections 9.34 to 9.36 and the Concise Guide Sections 9.34 to 9.36

Related handouts

• Creating an APA Style Reference List (PDF, 179KB)
• Reference Quick Guide (PDF, 225KB)

Format of DOIs and URLs

Follow these guidelines to format DOIs and URLs:

• Present both DOIs and URLs as hyperlinks (i.e., beginning with “http:” or “https:”).
• Because a hyperlink leads readers directly to the content, it is not necessary to include the words “Retrieved from” or “Accessed from” before a DOI or URL.
• It is acceptable to use either the default display settings for hyperlinks in your word-processing program (e.g., usually blue font, underlined) or plain text that is not underlined.
• Leave links live if the work is to be published or read online.
• Follow the current recommendations of the International DOI Foundation to format DOIs in the reference list, which as of this publication is as follows:

https://doi.org/xxxxx

• The string “https://doi.org/” is a way of presenting a DOI as a link, and “xxxxx” refers to the DOI number.
• The preferred format of the DOI has changed over time. Although older works use previous formats (e.g., “http:/dx.doi.org/” or “doi:” or “DOI:” before the DOI number), in your reference list, standardize DOIs into the current preferred format for all entries. For example, use https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251 in your reference even though that article, published in 2016, presented the number in an older format.
• Copy and paste the DOI or URL from your web browser directly into your reference list to avoid transcription errors. Do not change the capitalization or punctuation of the DOI or URL. Do not add line breaks manually to the hyperlink; it is acceptable if your word-processing program automatically adds a break or moves the hyperlink to its own line.
• Do not add a period after the DOI or URL because this may interfere with link functionality.

DOI and URL shorteners

When a DOI or URL is long or complex, you may use shortDOIs or shortened URLs if desired.

• Use the shortDOI service provided by the International DOI Foundation to create shortDOIs. A work can have only one DOI and only one shortDOI; the shortDOI service will either produce a new shortDOI for a work that has never had one or retrieve an existing shortDOI.
• Some websites provide their own branded shortened URLs, and independent URL shortening services are available as well. Any shortened URL is acceptable in a reference as long as you check the link to ensure that it takes you to the correct location.

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• The Basics of In-Text Citation | APA & MLA Examples

The Basics of In-Text Citation | APA & MLA Examples

Published on March 14, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on February 28, 2024.

An in-text citation is a short acknowledgement you include whenever you quote or take information from a source in academic writing. It points the reader to the source so they can see where you got your information.

In-text citations most commonly take the form of short parenthetical statements indicating the author and publication year of the source, as well as the page number if relevant.

We also offer a free citation generator and in-depth guides to the main citation styles.

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Table of contents

What are in-text citations for, when do you need an in-text citation, types of in-text citation, frequently asked questions about in-text citations.

The point of an in-text citation is to show your reader where your information comes from. Including citations:

• Avoids plagiarism by acknowledging the original author’s contribution
• Allows readers to verify your claims and do follow-up research
• Shows you are engaging with the literature of your field

Academic writing is seen as an ongoing conversation among scholars, both within and between fields of study. Showing exactly how your own research draws on and interacts with existing sources is essential to keeping this conversation going.

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An in-text citation should be included whenever you quote or paraphrase a source in your text.

Quoting means including the original author’s words directly in your text, usually introduced by a signal phrase . Quotes should always be cited (and indicated with quotation marks), and you should include a page number indicating where in the source the quote can be found.

Paraphrasing means putting information from a source into your own words. In-text citations are just as important here as with quotes, to avoid the impression you’re taking credit for someone else’s ideas. Include page numbers where possible, to show where the information can be found.

However, to avoid over-citation, bear in mind that some information is considered common knowledge and doesn’t need to be cited. For example, you don’t need a citation to prove that Paris is the capital city of France, and including one would be distracting.

Different types of in-text citation are used in different citation styles . They always direct the reader to a reference list giving more complete information on each source.

Author-date citations (used in APA , Harvard , and Chicago author-date ) include the author’s last name, the year of publication, and a page number when available. Author-page citations (used in MLA ) are the same except that the year is not included.

Both types are divided into parenthetical and narrative citations. In a parenthetical citation , the author’s name appears in parentheses along with the rest of the information. In a narrative citation , the author’s name appears as part of your sentence, not in parentheses.

Note: Footnote citations like those used in Chicago notes and bibliography are sometimes also referred to as in-text citations, but the citation itself appears in a note separate from the text.

An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

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What is a Dissertation Preface? Definition and Examples 

A dissertation preface is an integral part of the dissertation writing process for both graduate and doctoral students. Even though the preface is found at the beginning of the dissertation, it is essentially a task that authors engage in at the very end of their dissertation work.  

What is a Dissertation Preface?  

A dissertation preface is a section that precedes the main body of your dissertation. Unlike other sections of the dissertation, which are strictly academic and formal, the preface offers a more personal touch as it provides context and insight into your research journey. In this section, the author outlines the background and criticality of the work they have done, acknowledges contributions, and reflects on the experiences and challenges they faced during the research process. 

The dissertation preface serves various purposes, including:  

• Providing context : The key purpose is to provide the study’s main context so that the reader can understand its relevance and scope. 
• Sharing the author’s experience in writing the document : In the preface, there is space for the author’s personal reflections as they talk about the importance of the work, personal experiences, and issues and challenges they would have faced. The author can discuss their research goals, the particular research methods that were utilized, and the reasons for their choice. 
• Expressing the author’s motivation : The preface is also used to express the interests or motivations that led to the research and its writing.  
• Acknowledging contributions : Although a separate acknowledgements section is often included, most authors choose to mention key institutions, faculty, mentors, family, and friends who contributed in significant ways to the research.  

What to include in a dissertation preface?  

Here are the essential components that should be covered in a dissertation preface: 

• A short personal background of the author. 
• A brief account of your personal experiences with the study matter or circumstances that inspired you to conduct the research. 
• A brief description of how you did your research and any challenges during the research process. 
• Mention the target audience of your dissertation. 
• In the closing of the preface, provide your name and place. And date of writing. 

Is Preface and Acknowledgements same?  

While both the preface and the acknowledgements sections are personal, they are two very distinct sections that serve different purposes and are placed differently within a dissertation. Usually, dissertations contain either a preface or an acknowledgement section. As detailed above, the preface provides context, shares personal experiences while writing and the circumstances that motivated the conduct of the study. Institutions and critical individuals are also acknowledged for their contributions. The acknowledgements section is focused entirely on expressing gratitude to all persons and institutions that contributed significantly to the research and dissertation writing process. 

How to write a dissertation preface?  

• Provide a brief introduction to your topic: Begin with an engaging statement or anecdote that captures the reader’s attention and introduces your dissertation topic. Offer a glimpse of the content, key topics you discuss, and why your central theme or argument is crucial to be studied in depth. 
• Express what inspired you to conduct the study: Briefly discuss the rationale for your research, including aspects that motivated you to delve deeper into the study. 
• Detail your research process: Mention how you conducted the research, the setbacks or challenges, the choice of methods and so on can be outlined. 
• Specify your target audience: This is important to engage the interest of the concerned people in your research work. 
• Thank those who supported your research and dissertation: Give due credit to the people and institutions that helped you complete your research and dissertation. 

Preface example  

Understanding the existential issue of climate change and its impact on our environment, specifically on fragile coral reef ecosystems, has been a persistent goal for me since high school. The work before you is the result of this passion and my desire to discover ways to mitigate the damages caused by quickly changing climate conditions.  Over the years, I have followed and put in many years of research and hard work to find ways to preserve these “rainforests of the sea.” Engaging with subject experts and advocates of environmental sustainability across academic circles and also the industry gave me the necessary wherewithal to start thinking of this research work.   

As I went along this challenging journey, I learned many things that have enriched this study. From navigating the complexities of data collection to balancing academic commitments, each step taught me valuable lessons in perseverance and critical thinking. This would not have been possible without the encouragement and support of many people.   

I am deeply grateful to my mentor and supervisor, Professor Janine Forsythe, for her guidance and support throughout this project. Her expertise and encouragement were invaluable in my research. A special thanks to my faculty for their support and for providing me with an enriching research environment. It would be remiss of me not to mention and thank the National Endowment Fund for providing me with the necessary grant, without which this work would not have been completed. Lastly, I am grateful to my family and friends for putting up with my long working hours and often distracted self. I hope my work will inspire others to take up further research and study in this field.  

Peter Morris  

Washington DC, 11 June 2022  

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eTable 1.  ICD-10 Codes and Alcohol-Attributable Fraction Information by Causes of Death in the Alcohol-Related Disease Impact Application

eTable 2. Adjusted Prevalence of US Mean Daily Alcohol Consumption by Level of Consumption and Age Group

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Esser MB , Leung G , Sherk A, et al. Estimated Deaths Attributable to Excessive Alcohol Use Among US Adults Aged 20 to 64 Years, 2015 to 2019. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(11):e2239485. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.39485

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Estimated Deaths Attributable to Excessive Alcohol Use Among US Adults Aged 20 to 64 Years, 2015 to 2019

• 1 Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
• 2 Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada

Question   What is the estimated proportion of deaths among US adults aged 20 to 64 years attributable to excessive alcohol consumption, and are there differences by sex, age, and US state?

Findings   The estimates in this cross-sectional study of 694 660 mean deaths per year between 2015 and 2019 suggest that excessive alcohol consumption accounted for 12.9% of total deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years and 20.3% of deaths among adults aged 20 to 49 years. Among adults aged 20 to 64 years, the proportion of alcohol-attributable deaths to total deaths varied by state.

Meaning   These findings suggest that an estimated 1 in 8 deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years were attributable to excessive alcohol use and that greater implementation of evidence-based alcohol policies could reduce this proportion.

Importance   Alcohol consumption is a leading preventable cause of death in the US, and death rates from fully alcohol-attributable causes (eg, alcoholic liver disease) have increased in the past decade, including among adults aged 20 to 64 years. However, a comprehensive assessment of alcohol-attributable deaths among this population, including from partially alcohol-attributable causes, is lacking.

Objective   To estimate the mean annual number of deaths from excessive alcohol use relative to total deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years overall; by sex, age group, and state; and as a proportion of total deaths.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This population-based cross-sectional study of mean annual alcohol-attributable deaths among US residents between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2019, used population-attributable fractions. Data were analyzed from January 6, 2021, to May 2, 2022.

Exposures   Mean daily alcohol consumption among the 2 089 287 respondents to the 2015-2019 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System was adjusted using national per capita alcohol sales to correct for underreporting. Adjusted mean daily alcohol consumption prevalence estimates were applied to relative risks to generate alcohol-attributable fractions for chronic partially alcohol-attributable conditions. Alcohol-attributable fractions based on blood alcohol concentrations were used to assess acute partially alcohol-attributable deaths.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Alcohol-attributable deaths for 58 causes of death, as defined in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Alcohol-Related Disease Impact application. Mortality data were from the National Vital Statistics System.

Results   During the 2015-2019 study period, of 694 660 mean deaths per year among adults aged 20 to 64 years (men: 432 575 [66.3%]; women: 262 085 [37.7%]), an estimated 12.9% (89 697 per year) were attributable to excessive alcohol consumption. This percentage was higher among men (15.0%) than women (9.4%). By state, alcohol-attributable deaths ranged from 9.3% of total deaths in Mississippi to 21.7% in New Mexico. Among adults aged 20 to 49 years, alcohol-attributable deaths (44 981 mean annual deaths) accounted for an estimated 20.3% of total deaths.

Conclusions And Relevance   The findings of this cross-sectional study suggest that an estimated 1 in 8 total deaths among US adults aged 20 to 64 years were attributable to excessive alcohol use, including 1 in 5 deaths among adults aged 20 to 49 years. The number of premature deaths could be reduced with increased implementation of evidenced-based, population-level alcohol policies, such as increasing alcohol taxes or regulating alcohol outlet density.

Excessive alcohol use is associated with several leading causes of death among adults aged 20 to 64 years in the US, including heart disease, cancer, unintentional injury, and liver disease. 1 Excessive alcohol use is a leading preventable cause of premature death, 2 and rates of deaths due to fully alcohol-attributable causes (eg, alcoholic liver disease) have increased in the past decade, including among adults aged 20 to 64 years. 3 However, a US-based assessment of alcohol-attributable deaths among this population that also accounts for partially alcohol-attributable causes (eg, cancers) is lacking. Using the conditions in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Alcohol-Related Disease Impact (ARDI) application, 4 this study estimated the mean annual number of deaths due to excessive alcohol use among adults aged 20 to 64 years overall; by sex, age group, and US state; and as a proportion of total deaths.

Mean annual national and state mortality data from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2019, were obtained from the National Vital Statistics System, WONDER, 5 and the ARDI application for the 58 alcohol-related causes. In addition to deaths due to fully alcohol-attributable causes, deaths due to partially alcohol-attributable conditions were calculated in the ARDI application using cause-specific, alcohol-attributable fractions (AAFs) for select acute (eg, injuries) and chronic (eg, cancers) conditions (eTable 1 in the Supplement ). Deaths due to acute conditions were calculated using direct AAFs based on high blood alcohol concentrations (eg, ≥0.10 g/dL). Deaths due to 23 chronic conditions were calculated using indirect AAFs, which include the prevalence of mean daily alcohol consumption levels and cause-specific relative risks that corresponded to those consumption levels. 6 To account for substantial underreporting of alcohol consumption in nationwide surveys, the same methodology as in the ARDI application was used to adjust alcohol consumption from 2 089 287 respondents to the 2015-2019 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. 6 Consumption was adjusted to 73% of national per capita alcohol sales (from tax and shipment data in the Alcohol Epidemiologic Data System) to align with alcohol use reported in US epidemiologic cohort studies. 7 This study estimated deaths due to excessive alcohol consumption; therefore, for chronic conditions, the adjusted prevalence of medium (>1 to ≤2 alcoholic drinks for women or >2 to ≤4 drinks for men) and high (>2 alcoholic drinks for women or >4 drinks for men) mean daily alcohol consumption (eTable 2 in the Supplement ) were applied to relative risks to generate cause-specific AAFs. 4 Alcohol-attributable fractions and relative risks are generally not available by race and ethnicity, and alcohol attribution to deaths might differ across these groups; therefore, deaths in this study were not estimated by race and ethnicity. Because data were deidentified and secondary analyses were performed, institutional review board oversight and informed consent were not required as determined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention under 45 CFR 46. This study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

Analyses of alcohol consumption prevalence were conducted using SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc). We used the ARDI application to assess the mean annual number of deaths due to excessive drinking and the leading causes of death. 4 Alcohol-attributable deaths were calculated as a percentage of total deaths overall and by sex, age, and US state. Alcohol-attributable death rates per 100 000 population were assessed using US Census population counts from WONDER. 5

Our findings suggest that an estimated annual mean of 140 557 deaths (men: 97 182 [69.1%]; women: 43 375 [30.9%]) could be attributed to excessive alcohol consumption in the US during the 2015-2019 study period, accounting for 5.0% of total deaths ( Table 1 ). Among all adults aged 20 to 64 years, 694 660 annual mean total deaths were noted (men: 432 575 [66.3%]; women: 262 085 [37.7%]), and an estimated 89 697 of these (12.9%) were alcohol-attributable (64 998 [15.0%] among men and 24 699 [9.4%] among women). Our analysis showed that although the number and rate of alcohol-attributable deaths per 100 000 increased by age group, alcohol-attributable deaths accounted for a larger proportion of total deaths among younger groups: 19 782 of 77 973 total deaths (25.4%) among adults aged 20 to 34 years and 25 199 of 143 663 (17.5%) among those aged 35 to 49 years. The 3 leading causes of alcohol-attributable deaths by age group were the same for men and women (eg, adults aged 20-34 years: other poisonings, motor vehicle traffic crashes, and homicide; adults aged 35-49 years: other poisonings, alcoholic liver disease, and motor vehicle traffic crashes).

By state, alcohol-attributable deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years ranged from 9.3% of total deaths in Mississippi to 21.7% in New Mexico ( Table 2 ). State-level variations were found by age group (eg, the proportion of alcohol-attributable deaths to total deaths among adults aged 20-34 years ranged from 22.4% in Utah to 33.3% in New Mexico). Among adults aged 20 to 49 years, our estimates suggest that excessive drinking was responsible for 44 981 mean annual deaths, or 20.3% of total deaths. This percentage was generally lower in states in the Southeast and higher in the West, upper Midwest, and New England ( Figure ).

We found that 89 697 of an estimated 140 557 deaths due to excessive alcohol use annually during the 2015-2019 study period, or nearly two-thirds of the deaths, were among adults aged 20 to 64 years. Our estimates suggest that alcohol-attributable deaths were responsible for 1 in 8 deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years, including 1 in 5 deaths among adults aged 20 to 49 years.

Compared with 2019, death rates involving alcohol as an underlying or contributing cause of death increased during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, including among adults aged 20 to 64 years. 8 Therefore, the proportion of deaths due to excessive drinking among total deaths might be higher than reported in this study. Nevertheless, these study findings are consistent with the epidemiology of excessive drinking. For example, the prevalence of binge drinking is generally higher among younger adults, and this population tends to consume more alcohol while binge drinking, 9 which contributes to their leading causes of alcohol-attributable deaths.

The methods for estimating deaths due to excessive alcohol consumption in this study differ somewhat from those of other studies. From 2006 to 2010, an estimated 1 in 10 deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years was attributable to excessive alcohol consumption. 10 That finding was partially based on self-reported mean daily consumption prevalence estimates that were adjusted to account for binge drinking occasions but not per capita alcohol sales. Because survey-based adjustments alone can lead to underestimates of alcohol-attributable deaths that are calculated using indirect AAF methods, this study adjusted self-reported alcohol use data to account for 73% of per capita alcohol sales. 7 Global studies estimating alcohol-attributable deaths also adjust using per capita alcohol sales, but they generally adjust to 80%. 11 The ARDI methods used in this study provide estimates of deaths pertaining to excessive drinking rather than all levels of consumption. Also, the ARDI application uses direct AAFs for estimating the number of alcohol-attributable deaths due to acute causes. This method differs from those of global studies that estimate alcohol-attributable deaths across all levels of consumption and consistently base estimates on continuous risk functions. 11 , 12

This study has some limitations. The alcohol-attributable death estimates in this study may be conservative because they are based on deaths due to alcohol-related conditions that were identified as the underlying cause of death only; contributing causes of death were not included. In addition, alcohol-attributable deaths due to partially alcohol-attributable conditions were not estimated for adults who formerly used alcohol, despite some dying of alcohol-related causes, 11 because the prevalence of former alcohol consumption is not collected in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Direct AAFs were used to estimate alcohol-attributable deaths due to acute causes (eg, injuries) 6 ; however, the sources of some AAFs were based on older data that may less accurately represent current alcohol-attribution. Last, some conditions related to alcohol use (eg, HIV/AIDS) were not included because suitable AAFs for the US were not available.

The findings of this cross-sectional study suggest that an estimated 1 in 8 deaths among adults aged 20 to 64 years was attributable to excessive alcohol consumption, including 1 in 5 deaths among adults aged 20 to 49 years. These premature deaths could be reduced through increased implementation of evidence-based alcohol policies (eg, increasing alcohol taxes, regulating alcohol outlet density), 13 and alcohol screening and brief intervention. 14

Accepted for Publication: September 16, 2022.

Published: November 1, 2022. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.39485

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2022 Esser MB et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Marissa B. Esser, PhD, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy NE, Mail Stop S107-6, Atlanta, GA 30341 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Esser had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Esser, Sherk, Naimi.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Esser, Leung, Sherk, Lu, Naimi.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Leung, Sherk, Liu.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Esser, Sherk, Bohm.

Supervision: Esser.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Sherk reported receiving grant funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), during the conduct of the study. Dr Naimi reported grant funding from the CDC/HHS, during the conduct of the study. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was partially supported by a financial assistance award by the CDC/HHS as part of a financial assistance award totaling $81 125 (Drs Sherk and Naimi), with 100% funded by the CDC/HHS.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The sponsor had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the CDC.

Additional Contributions: The state coordinators of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System facilitated data collection in their respective states. These individuals were not compensated financially for their contributions beyond their salaries.

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What 'Project 2025' Would Mean for Health and Healthcare

George Lundberg, MD

Authors and Disclosures

Disclosure: George D. Lundberg, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

The Heritage Foundation sponsored and developed Project 2025 for the explicit, stated purpose of building a conservative victory through policy, personnel, and training with a 180-day game plan after a sympathetic new President of the United States takes office. To date, Project 2025 has not been formally endorsed by any presidential campaign.

More than 100 conservative organizations are said to be participating. More than 400 conservative scholars and experts have collaborated in authorship of the mandate's 40 chapters. Chapter 14 of the "Mandate for Leadership" is an exhaustive proposed overhaul of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), one of the major existing arms of the executive branch of the US government. 

The mandate's sweeping recommendations, if implemented, would impact the lives of all Americans and all healthcare workers, as outlined in the following excerpts. 

Healthcare-Related Excerpts From Project 2025

• "From the moment of conception, every human being possesses inherent dignity and worth, and our humanity does not depend on our age, stage of development, race, or abilities. The Secretary must ensure that all HHS programs and activities are rooted in a deep respect for innocent human life from day one until natural death: Abortion and euthanasia are not health care."
• "Unfortunately, family policies and programs under President Biden's HHS are fraught with agenda items focusing on 'LGBTQ+ equity,' subsidizing single motherhood, disincentivizing work, and penalizing marriage. These policies should be repealed and replaced by policies that support the formation of stable, married, nuclear families."
• "The next Administration should guard against the regulatory capture of our public health agencies by pharmaceutical companies, insurers, hospital conglomerates, and related economic interests that these agencies are meant to regulate. We must erect robust firewalls to mitigate these obvious financial conflicts of interest."
• "All National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Food and Drug Administration regulators should be entirely free from private biopharmaceutical funding. In this realm, 'public–private partnerships' is a euphemism for agency capture, a thin veneer for corporatism. Funding for agencies and individual government researchers must come directly from the government with robust congressional oversight."
• "The CDC [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention] operates several programs related to vaccine safety including the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS); Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD); and Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) Project. Those functions and their associated funding should be transferred to the FDA [Food and Drug Administration], which is responsible for post-market surveillance and evaluation of all other drugs and biological products."
• "Because liberal states have now become sanctuaries for abortion tourism, HHS should use every available tool, including the cutting of funds, to ensure that every state reports exactly how many abortions take place within its borders, at what gestational age of the child, for what reason, the mother's state of residence, and by what method. It should also ensure that statistics are separated by category: spontaneous miscarriage ; treatments that incidentally result in the death of a child (such as chemotherapy); stillbirths; and induced abortion. In addition, CDC should require monitoring and reporting for complications due to abortion and every instance of children being born alive after an abortion."
• "The CDC should immediately end its collection of data on gender identity , which legitimizes the unscientific notion that men can become women (and vice versa) and encourages the phenomenon of ever-multiplying subjective identities."
• "A test developed by a lab in accordance with the protocols developed by another lab (non-commercial sharing) currently constitutes a 'new' laboratory-developed test because the lab in which it will be used is different from the initial developing lab. To encourage interlaboratory collaboration and discourage duplicative test creation (and associated regulatory and logistical burdens), the FDA should introduce mechanisms through which laboratory-developed tests can easily be shared with other laboratories without the current regulatory burdens."
• "[FDA should] Reverse its approval of chemical abortion drugs because the politicized approval process was illegal from the start. The FDA failed to abide by its legal obligations to protect the health, safety, and welfare of girls and women."
• "[FDA should] Stop promoting or approving mail-order abortions in violation of long-standing federal laws that prohibit the mailing and interstate carriage of abortion drugs."
• "[HHS should] Promptly restore the ethics advisory committee to oversee abortion- derived fetal tissue research, and Congress should prohibit such research altogether."
• "[HHS should] End intramural research projects using tissue from aborted children within the NIH, which should end its human embryonic stem cell registry."
• "Under Francis Collins, NIH became so focused on the #MeToo movement that it refused to sponsor scientific conferences unless there were a certain number of women panelists, which violates federal civil rights law against sex discrimination. This quota practice should be ended, and the NIH Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion, which pushes such unlawful actions, should be abolished."
• "Make Medicare Advantage [MA] the default enrollment option."
• "[Legislation reforming legacy (non-MA) Medicare should] Repeal harmful health policies enacted under the Obama and Biden Administrations such as the Medicare Shared Savings Program and Inflation Reduction Act."
• "…the next Administration should] Add work requirements and match Medicaid benefits to beneficiary needs. Because Medicaid serves a broad and diverse group of individuals, it should be flexible enough to accommodate different designs for different groups."
• "The No Surprises Act should scrap the dispute resolution process in favor of a truth-in-advertising approach that will protect consumers and free doctors, insurers, and arbiters from confused and conflicting standards for resolving disputes that the disputing parties can best resolve themselves."
• "Prohibit abortion travel funding. Providing funding for abortions increases the number of abortions and violates the conscience and religious freedom rights of Americans who object to subsidizing the taking of life."
• "Prohibit Planned Parenthood from receiving Medicaid funds. During the 2020–2021 reporting period, Planned Parenthood performed more than 383,000 abortions."
• "Protect faith-based grant recipients from religious liberty violations and maintain a biblically based, social science–reinforced definition of marriage and family. Social science reports that assess the objective outcomes for children raised in homes aside from a heterosexual, intact marriage are clear."
• "Allocate funding to strategy programs promoting father involvement or terminate parental rights quickly."
• "Eliminate the Head Start program."
• "Support palliative care. Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is legal in 10 states and the District of Columbia. Legalizing PAS is a grave mistake that endangers the weak and vulnerable, corrupts the practice of medicine and the doctor–patient relationship, compromises the family and intergenerational commitments, and betrays human dignity and equality before the law."
• "Eliminate men's preventive services from the women's preventive services mandate. In December 2021, HRSA [Health Resources and Services Administration] updated its women's preventive services guidelines to include male condoms."
• "Prioritize funding for home-based childcare, not universal day care."
• " The Office of the Secretary should eliminate the HHS Reproductive Healthcare Access Task Force and install a pro-life task force to ensure that all of the department's divisions seek to use their authority to promote the life and health of women and their unborn children."
• "The ASH [Assistant Secretary for Health] and SG [Surgeon General] positions should be combined into one four-star position with the rank, responsibilities, and authority of the ASH retained but with the title of Surgeon General."
• "OCR [Office for Civil Rights] should withdraw its Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) guidance on abortion."

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