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Home » Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Summary

Definition:

A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings. It is often used as a tool to quickly communicate the main findings of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or decision-makers.

Structure of Research Summary

The Structure of a Research Summary typically include:

Introduction : This section provides a brief background of the research problem or question, explains the purpose of the study, and outlines the research objectives.
Methodology : This section explains the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. It describes the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
Results : This section presents the main findings of the study, including statistical analysis if applicable. It may include tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data.
Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains their implications. It discusses the significance of the findings, compares them to previous research, and identifies any limitations or future directions for research.
Conclusion : This section summarizes the main points of the research and provides a conclusion based on the findings. It may also suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
References : This section lists the sources cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

How to Write Research Summary

Here are the steps you can follow to write a research summary:

Read the research article or study thoroughly: To write a summary, you must understand the research article or study you are summarizing. Therefore, read the article or study carefully to understand its purpose, research design, methodology, results, and conclusions.
Identify the main points : Once you have read the research article or study, identify the main points, key findings, and research question. You can highlight or take notes of the essential points and findings to use as a reference when writing your summary.
Write the introduction: Start your summary by introducing the research problem, research question, and purpose of the study. Briefly explain why the research is important and its significance.
Summarize the methodology : In this section, summarize the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. Explain the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
Present the results: Summarize the main findings of the study. Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data if necessary.
Interpret the results: In this section, interpret the results and explain their implications. Discuss the significance of the findings, compare them to previous research, and identify any limitations or future directions for research.
Conclude the summary : Summarize the main points of the research and provide a conclusion based on the findings. Suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
Revise and edit : Once you have written the summary, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors. Make sure that your summary accurately represents the research article or study.
Add references: Include a list of references cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

Example of Research Summary

Here is an example of a research summary:

Title: The Effects of Yoga on Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis

Introduction: This meta-analysis examines the effects of yoga on mental health. The study aimed to investigate whether yoga practice can improve mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life.

Methodology : The study analyzed data from 14 randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of yoga on mental health outcomes. The sample included a total of 862 participants. The yoga interventions varied in length and frequency, ranging from four to twelve weeks, with sessions lasting from 45 to 90 minutes.

Results : The meta-analysis found that yoga practice significantly improved mental health outcomes. Participants who practiced yoga showed a significant reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as stress levels. Quality of life also improved in those who practiced yoga.

Discussion : The findings of this study suggest that yoga can be an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. The study supports the growing body of evidence that suggests that yoga can have a positive impact on mental health. Limitations of the study include the variability of the yoga interventions, which may affect the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion : Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis support the use of yoga as an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. Further research is needed to determine the optimal length and frequency of yoga interventions for different populations.

References :

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Dobos, G., & Berger, B. (2013). Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and anxiety, 30(11), 1068-1083.
Khalsa, S. B. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 48(3), 269-285.
Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12.

Purpose of Research Summary

The purpose of a research summary is to provide a brief overview of a research project or study, including its main points, findings, and conclusions. The summary allows readers to quickly understand the essential aspects of the research without having to read the entire article or study.

Research summaries serve several purposes, including:

Facilitating comprehension: A research summary allows readers to quickly understand the main points and findings of a research project or study without having to read the entire article or study. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the research and its significance.
Communicating research findings: Research summaries are often used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public. The summary presents the essential aspects of the research in a clear and concise manner, making it easier for non-experts to understand.
Supporting decision-making: Research summaries can be used to support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. This information can be used by policymakers or practitioners to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
Saving time: Research summaries save time for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders who need to review multiple research studies. Rather than having to read the entire article or study, they can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.

Characteristics of Research Summary

The following are some of the key characteristics of a research summary:

Concise : A research summary should be brief and to the point, providing a clear and concise overview of the main points of the research.
Objective : A research summary should be written in an objective tone, presenting the research findings without bias or personal opinion.
Comprehensive : A research summary should cover all the essential aspects of the research, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions.
Accurate : A research summary should accurately reflect the key findings and conclusions of the research.
Clear and well-organized: A research summary should be easy to read and understand, with a clear structure and logical flow.
Relevant : A research summary should focus on the most important and relevant aspects of the research, highlighting the key findings and their implications.
Audience-specific: A research summary should be tailored to the intended audience, using language and terminology that is appropriate and accessible to the reader.
Citations : A research summary should include citations to the original research articles or studies, allowing readers to access the full text of the research if desired.

When to write Research Summary

Here are some situations when it may be appropriate to write a research summary:

Proposal stage: A research summary can be included in a research proposal to provide a brief overview of the research aims, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes.
Conference presentation: A research summary can be prepared for a conference presentation to summarize the main findings of a study or research project.
Journal submission: Many academic journals require authors to submit a research summary along with their research article or study. The summary provides a brief overview of the study’s main points, findings, and conclusions and helps readers quickly understand the research.
Funding application: A research summary can be included in a funding application to provide a brief summary of the research aims, objectives, and expected outcomes.
Policy brief: A research summary can be prepared as a policy brief to communicate research findings to policymakers or stakeholders in a concise and accessible manner.

Advantages of Research Summary

Research summaries offer several advantages, including:

Time-saving: A research summary saves time for readers who need to understand the key findings and conclusions of a research project quickly. Rather than reading the entire research article or study, readers can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.
Clarity and accessibility: A research summary provides a clear and accessible overview of the research project’s main points, making it easier for readers to understand the research without having to be experts in the field.
Improved comprehension: A research summary helps readers comprehend the research by providing a brief and focused overview of the key findings and conclusions, making it easier to understand the research and its significance.
Enhanced communication: Research summaries can be used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public, in a concise and accessible manner.
Facilitated decision-making: Research summaries can support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. Policymakers or practitioners can use this information to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
Increased dissemination: Research summaries can be easily shared and disseminated, allowing research findings to reach a wider audience.

Limitations of Research Summary

Limitations of the Research Summary are as follows:

Limited scope: Research summaries provide a brief overview of the research project’s main points, findings, and conclusions, which can be limiting. They may not include all the details, nuances, and complexities of the research that readers may need to fully understand the study’s implications.
Risk of oversimplification: Research summaries can be oversimplified, reducing the complexity of the research and potentially distorting the findings or conclusions.
Lack of context: Research summaries may not provide sufficient context to fully understand the research findings, such as the research background, methodology, or limitations. This may lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the research.
Possible bias: Research summaries may be biased if they selectively emphasize certain findings or conclusions over others, potentially distorting the overall picture of the research.
Format limitations: Research summaries may be constrained by the format or length requirements, making it challenging to fully convey the research’s main points, findings, and conclusions.
Accessibility: Research summaries may not be accessible to all readers, particularly those with limited literacy skills, visual impairments, or language barriers.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How To Write A Research Summary

It’s a common perception that writing a research summary is a quick and easy task. After all, how hard can jotting down 300 words be? But when you consider the weight those 300 words carry, writing a research summary as a part of your dissertation, essay or compelling draft for your paper instantly becomes daunting task.

A research summary requires you to synthesize a complex research paper into an informative, self-explanatory snapshot. It needs to portray what your article contains. Thus, writing it often comes at the end of the task list.

Regardless of when you’re planning to write, it is no less of a challenge, particularly if you’re doing it for the first time. This blog will take you through everything you need to know about research summary so that you have an easier time with it.

What is a Research Summary?

A research summary is the part of your research paper that describes its findings to the audience in a brief yet concise manner. A well-curated research summary represents you and your knowledge about the information written in the research paper.

While writing a quality research summary, you need to discover and identify the significant points in the research and condense it in a more straightforward form. A research summary is like a doorway that provides access to the structure of a research paper's sections.

Since the purpose of a summary is to give an overview of the topic, methodology, and conclusions employed in a paper, it requires an objective approach. No analysis or criticism.

Research summary or Abstract. What’s the Difference?

They’re both brief, concise, and give an overview of an aspect of the research paper. So, it’s easy to understand why many new researchers get the two confused. However, a research summary and abstract are two very different things with individual purpose. To start with, a research summary is written at the end while the abstract comes at the beginning of a research paper.

A research summary captures the essence of the paper at the end of your document. It focuses on your topic, methods, and findings. More like a TL;DR, if you will. An abstract, on the other hand, is a description of what your research paper is about. It tells your reader what your topic or hypothesis is, and sets a context around why you have embarked on your research.

Getting Started with a Research Summary

Before you start writing, you need to get insights into your research’s content, style, and organization. There are three fundamental areas of a research summary that you should focus on.

While deciding the contents of your research summary, you must include a section on its importance as a whole, the techniques, and the tools that were used to formulate the conclusion. Additionally, there needs to be a short but thorough explanation of how the findings of the research paper have a significance.
To keep the summary well-organized, try to cover the various sections of the research paper in separate paragraphs. Besides, how the idea of particular factual research came up first must be explained in a separate paragraph.
As a general practice worldwide, research summaries are restricted to 300-400 words. However, if you have chosen a lengthy research paper, try not to exceed the word limit of 10% of the entire research paper.

How to Structure Your Research Summary

The research summary is nothing but a concise form of the entire research paper. Therefore, the structure of a summary stays the same as the paper. So, include all the section titles and write a little about them. The structural elements that a research summary must consist of are:

It represents the topic of the research. Try to phrase it so that it includes the key findings or conclusion of the task.

The abstract gives a context of the research paper. Unlike the abstract at the beginning of a paper, the abstract here, should be very short since you’ll be working with a limited word count.

Introduction

This is the most crucial section of a research summary as it helps readers get familiarized with the topic. You should include the definition of your topic, the current state of the investigation, and practical relevance in this part. Additionally, you should present the problem statement, investigative measures, and any hypothesis in this section.

Methodology

This section provides details about the methodology and the methods adopted to conduct the study. You should write a brief description of the surveys, sampling, type of experiments, statistical analysis, and the rationality behind choosing those particular methods.

Create a list of evidence obtained from the various experiments with a primary analysis, conclusions, and interpretations made upon that. In the paper research paper, you will find the results section as the most detailed and lengthy part. Therefore, you must pick up the key elements and wisely decide which elements are worth including and which are worth skipping.

This is where you present the interpretation of results in the context of their application. Discussion usually covers results, inferences, and theoretical models explaining the obtained values, key strengths, and limitations. All of these are vital elements that you must include in the summary.

Most research papers merge conclusion with discussions. However, depending upon the instructions, you may have to prepare this as a separate section in your research summary. Usually, conclusion revisits the hypothesis and provides the details about the validation or denial about the arguments made in the research paper, based upon how convincing the results were obtained.

The structure of a research summary closely resembles the anatomy of a scholarly article . Additionally, you should keep your research and references limited to authentic and scholarly sources only.

Tips for Writing a Research Summary

The core concept behind undertaking a research summary is to present a simple and clear understanding of your research paper to the reader. The biggest hurdle while doing that is the number of words you have at your disposal. So, follow the steps below to write a research summary that sticks.

1. Read the parent paper thoroughly

You should go through the research paper thoroughly multiple times to ensure that you have a complete understanding of its contents. A 3-stage reading process helps.

a. Scan: In the first read, go through it to get an understanding of its basic concept and methodologies.

b. Read: For the second step, read the article attentively by going through each section, highlighting the key elements, and subsequently listing the topics that you will include in your research summary.

c. Skim: Flip through the article a few more times to study the interpretation of various experimental results, statistical analysis, and application in different contexts.

Sincerely go through different headings and subheadings as it will allow you to understand the underlying concept of each section. You can try reading the introduction and conclusion simultaneously to understand the motive of the task and how obtained results stay fit to the expected outcome.

2. Identify the key elements in different sections

While exploring different sections of an article, you can try finding answers to simple what, why, and how. Below are a few pointers to give you an idea:

What is the research question and how is it addressed?
Is there a hypothesis in the introductory part?
What type of methods are being adopted?
What is the sample size for data collection and how is it being analyzed?
What are the most vital findings?
Do the results support the hypothesis?

Discussion/Conclusion

What is the final solution to the problem statement?
What is the explanation for the obtained results?
What is the drawn inference?
What are the various limitations of the study?

3. Prepare the first draft

Now that you’ve listed the key points that the paper tries to demonstrate, you can start writing the summary following the standard structure of a research summary. Just make sure you’re not writing statements from the parent research paper verbatim.

Instead, try writing down each section in your own words. This will not only help in avoiding plagiarism but will also show your complete understanding of the subject. Alternatively, you can use a summarizing tool (AI-based summary generators) to shorten the content or summarize the content without disrupting the actual meaning of the article.

SciSpace Copilot is one such helpful feature! You can easily upload your research paper and ask Copilot to summarize it. You will get an AI-generated, condensed research summary. SciSpace Copilot also enables you to highlight text, clip math and tables, and ask any question relevant to the research paper; it will give you instant answers with deeper context of the article..

4. Include visuals

One of the best ways to summarize and consolidate a research paper is to provide visuals like graphs, charts, pie diagrams, etc.. Visuals make getting across the facts, the past trends, and the probabilistic figures around a concept much more engaging.

5. Double check for plagiarism

It can be very tempting to copy-paste a few statements or the entire paragraphs depending upon the clarity of those sections. But it’s best to stay away from the practice. Even paraphrasing should be done with utmost care and attention.

Also: QuillBot vs SciSpace: Choose the best AI-paraphrasing tool

6. Religiously follow the word count limit

You need to have strict control while writing different sections of a research summary. In many cases, it has been observed that the research summary and the parent research paper become the same length. If that happens, it can lead to discrediting of your efforts and research summary itself. Whatever the standard word limit has been imposed, you must observe that carefully.

7. Proofread your research summary multiple times

The process of writing the research summary can be exhausting and tiring. However, you shouldn’t allow this to become a reason to skip checking your academic writing several times for mistakes like misspellings, grammar, wordiness, and formatting issues. Proofread and edit until you think your research summary can stand out from the others, provided it is drafted perfectly on both technicality and comprehension parameters. You can also seek assistance from editing and proofreading services , and other free tools that help you keep these annoying grammatical errors at bay.

8. Watch while you write

Keep a keen observation of your writing style. You should use the words very precisely, and in any situation, it should not represent your personal opinions on the topic. You should write the entire research summary in utmost impersonal, precise, factually correct, and evidence-based writing.

9. Ask a friend/colleague to help

Once you are done with the final copy of your research summary, you must ask a friend or colleague to read it. You must test whether your friend or colleague could grasp everything without referring to the parent paper. This will help you in ensuring the clarity of the article.

Once you become familiar with the research paper summary concept and understand how to apply the tips discussed above in your current task, summarizing a research summary won’t be that challenging. While traversing the different stages of your academic career, you will face different scenarios where you may have to create several research summaries.

In such cases, you just need to look for answers to simple questions like “Why this study is necessary,” “what were the methods,” “who were the participants,” “what conclusions were drawn from the research,” and “how it is relevant to the wider world.” Once you find out the answers to these questions, you can easily create a good research summary following the standard structure and a precise writing style.

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Scientific Journal Article Summary Example: Best Practices

We can all agree - condensing complex scientific research into an accurate, engaging summary is tricky.

But with the right approach, you can craft summaries that effectively convey key details and implications to various audiences.

In this post, you'll uncover best practices for summarizing scientific journal articles. You'll learn how to identify core findings, summarize methodologies precisely, convey results properly, and synthesize everything into a cohesive narrative. An example APA-formatted summary is also provided to see these tips in action.

Introduction to Scientific Journal Article Summaries

Summarizing scientific journal articles is an important skill for researchers and students. It allows you to concisely communicate the key objectives, methods, findings, and conclusions of a study to various audiences.

The Art of Condensing Complex Research

When summarizing scientific research, it is essential to identify and highlight the core elements that capture the essence of the study. This involves analyzing complex details and data to extract the most critical information. Key steps include:

Clearly articulating the central research question or objective

Condensing the methods into a simple overview

Highlighting key results and statistics

Summarizing the conclusions and implications

Skills like active reading, critical thinking, and concise writing help distill multidimensional research into accessible summaries.

Target Audience: Tailoring Summaries for Different Readers

Scientific article summaries should be adapted based on the intended reader. For example:

Emphasize key learning points

Define discipline-specific terminology

Focus on practical applications

Academic Peers

Use precise disciplinary language

Include technical details on methodology

Highlight novel contributions to the field

Scientific Journal Article Summary Example for Students

Here is an example summary of a microbiology study tailored specifically for a student reader:

A 2022 study on antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) found that a synthetic AMP named “peptoid-1” effectively killed methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in lab tests. The peptoid-1 molecule disrupted the bacterial cell membranes of MRSA, including difficult-to-treat biofilms. The research demonstrates the potential of synthetic AMPs as a promising new class of antibiotics to combat drug-resistant superbugs like MRSA. This has important implications for developing urgently needed antibiotics to address the growing global threat of antimicrobial resistance.

This summary briefly explains the key learning points of the study in straightforward language appropriate for students. Technical details are avoided, and emphasis is placed on articulating the essential findings, applications, and implications.

How do you write a summary for a scientific journal article?

A well-written summary of a scientific journal article should cover three main points:

Why the research was done

The first section of your summary should provide background information and context about why the research was conducted. This includes:

The research goals, questions, or hypotheses being investigated

Gaps in existing knowledge the study aims to address

The overall importance of the research topic

For example:

This study investigates the effects of climate change on crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa. Prior research has not examined how higher temperatures may impact staple crops in this region specifically. Understanding climate change effects on agriculture is critical for food security policymaking across developing nations.

What happened in the experiment

The second section should explain the methodology and highlight key findings from the study's experiments, data analysis, or other research activities. Use concise language to describe:

The study sample, materials, and procedures

Statistical analysis techniques

Major results that relate to the research questions

For instance:

Researchers compiled 30 years of temperature data and crop production records from six countries. Using regression analysis, they found higher temperatures significantly reduced wheat and maize yields by an average of 15% and 12%, respectively.

What conclusions the author drew

Finally, summarize the researchers' conclusions, implications, and recommendations based on their results. Mention any limitations noted and future research suggested.

The authors conclude rising temperatures from climate change could seriously impact food security in sub-Saharan Africa. They call for policies to help farmers adapt through heat-tolerant crop varieties and improved irrigation access. Additional research is needed to develop effective adaptation strategies.

Following this basic structure will help you efficiently summarize the essential information in a scientific journal article.

What is journal article summary?

A journal article summary concisely overviews the main points and key takeaways from a scientific paper published in an academic journal. It allows readers to quickly understand the core findings and arguments of the original article without having to read the full text.

An effective summary should:

Identify the main objective or research question the authors aimed to address

Highlight the key methods, data sources, and analytical approaches used

Summarize the major results and main conclusions

Note any limitations or unanswered questions for future research

For example, a summary of a psychology paper might overview the hypothesis tested, experiment methodology, participant demographics, statistical analyses conducted, and whether the findings supported or rejected the original hypothesis.

Summaries are a useful way for scientists to stay current with latest developments across broad fields of research. They also help readers determine if they should invest time reading the full article based on whether the topic and findings are relevant to their own work. As such, summaries should provide enough detail and context to evaluate the scope and implications of the research.

Formatting a Journal Article Summary

When writing a journal article summary, the exact formatting can vary depending on the target publication or audience needs. However, some key elements tend to be consistent:

Citation: Include a full citation of the original paper using the required scholarly style

Background: 1-2 sentences placing the research in context of current knowledge state

Objective: 1 sentence stating the purpose/focus of the study

Methods: 1-2 sentences summarizing the experiment, data, analyses performed

Results: 2-3 sentences describing the major findings

Conclusion: 1-2 sentences covering implications and future directions

The full summary is typically 150-250 words or 8-15 sentences. Brevity and precision are key when condensing a complex study into such a compact overview.

What is the general format for summary of a journal article?

Summarizing a scientific journal article requires capturing the key details while maintaining brevity. Here are some best practices:

Follow the structure of the original paper

Like an abstract, organize your summary by:

Introduction - Cover the background, purpose, and hypothesis.

Methods - Briefly describe the experimental design.

Results - Highlight the main findings without going into excessive detail.

Discussion - Summarize the author's interpretation and conclusions.

Focus on key information

Identify and extract only the most critical details:

Research goals

Sample characteristics

Variables examined

Statistical analyses performed

Major results obtained

Conclusions reached

Maintain objectivity

Present the findings in a neutral tone without inserting your own opinions or judgments.

Use paraphrasing

Summarize points in your own words instead of relying heavily on direct quotes. However, scientifically precise terminology should be retained.

Follow formatting guidelines

Adhere to style formatting per journal or publisher requirements. Most scientific summaries require American Psychological Association (APA) citations.

Keeping summaries clear, accurate, and concise requires practice. But following these research article summary guidelines will help ensure quality. With wisio.app 's tools for discovering papers and translating terminology, scientists can efficiently produce summaries to advance their work.

How do you summarize a journal article in APA?

When summarizing a journal article in APA style, it is important to follow some key guidelines:

Use Your Own Words

Read through the full article and highlight the key points

Write the summary using your own words while staying true to the original meaning

Avoid directly quoting chunks of text from the original

Focus on Relevant Elements

Identify the critical elements like purpose, methods, findings, conclusions

Summarize only details directly relevant to the core focus of the article

Keep contextual details brief or exclude if non-essential

Maintain Clear Distinction

Clearly indicate in the summary which ideas are yours versus the author's

Do not interject your own analysis, evaluation, or interpretation

Keep the summary objective and descriptive in nature

Follow APA Formatting

Include a citation to the original article

Apply proper in-text citations for any verbatim short quotes

Format the summary using standard APA guidelines for font, spacing, etc.

Keep it Brief

Strive to keep the summary less than 10-15% of the original length

Tighten long summaries by removing non-vital details

Aim for brevity while preserving meaning and scientific accuracy

Following these basic tips will help produce an APA-style summary that accurately conveys the essence of the journal article in a clear and concise manner.

Understanding the Structure of Scientific Articles

Delve into the typical structure of scientific journal articles to understand the framework from which summaries are derived.

Dissecting the IMRaD Format

The IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) format is a standard structure used in scientific writing. Understanding this structure is key when summarizing journal articles.

The Introduction presents background context, defines key terms, and states the research objective and hypothesis. When summarizing, capture the main research goals and questions driving the study.

The Methods section provides details on the experimental design, materials, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis. Identify the overall methodology without delving into granular specifics.

The Results present objective findings from the data analysis. Highlight key quantitative outcomes and discoveries in your summary.

The Discussion section interprets the results, explores their significance, compares them to other studies, acknowledges limitations, and suggests future work. Summarize the main conclusions, implications, and next steps discussed.

Decoding Abstracts and Conclusions

Article abstracts concisely overview the purpose, methods, findings, and implications covered in the full text. Leverage abstracts when first assessing articles for relevance.

Conclusions summarize the key points and provide final thoughts. Use them to validate your understanding of the central themes.

Both provide a helpful frame of reference when synthesizing summaries.

Critical Reading for Effective Summarization

Carefully analyze each section and subsection

Annotate and highlight meaningful passages

Identify connections between key ideas

Focus on what findings reveal about the research problem

Capture enough detail to convey original intent

Synthesize using clear, concise language

Thoughtful critical reading builds comprehension essential for quality summarization.

How to Summarize a Research Article

Summarizing a research article requires identifying the core findings and contributions, accurately capturing the methodologies, conveying the key results and implications, and crafting a cohesive narrative. Here is a step-by-step guide:

Identifying Core Findings and Contributions

When summarizing a research article, it is essential to pinpoint the most significant findings and contributions of the study. Key steps include:

Read the abstract and conclusion to understand the major findings.

Highlight unique discoveries, breakthroughs, or advances made.

Note the implications and importance communicated by the authors.

Identify knowledge gaps filled or new frameworks proposed.

Focusing on these elements will help determine the core essence to convey in your summary.

Summarizing Methodologies with Precision

While summarizing the methodologies, avoid oversimplifying complex research processes. Key tips include:

Use concise yet precise language to describe methods applied.

Specify instruments or tools leveraged in the research.

Provide sample sizes and measures captured if relevant.

Note statistical or analytical techniques utilized.

Maintaining key methodological details demonstrates analytical rigor when sharing the research with others.

Conveying Results and Their Implications

An effective summary should clearly communicate the study's results and why they matter. To accomplish this:

Report quantitative findings or qualitative discoveries made.

Contextualize results using benchmarks, comparisons, or real-world impacts.

Connect results back to the research aims and knowledge gaps identified.

Discuss limitations along with future research needed.

This enables readers to grasp the meaningfulness of the results.

Crafting a Cohesive Narrative

Finally, structure the various summary elements into a cohesive overview:

Organize content using section headers around aims, methods, results, and conclusions.

Use transition words (e.g. “additionally,” “in contrast,” “as a result”) to improve flow.

Focus on information that supports the core findings and contributions of the work.

Avoid excessive details and maintain brevity.

Following these steps will produce a concise yet insightful summary showcasing the relevance of the research.

Scientific Journal Article Summary Example APA Format

Adhering to proper formatting guidelines is critical when summarizing scientific journal articles, especially for academic purposes. The American Psychological Association (APA) style provides clear standards that enable precise, uniform communication across scientific disciplines.

Adhering to APA Style in Summaries

Following APA style lends credibility and ensures readers can easily reference sources. Key elements include:

Properly formatting in-text citations and references

Using headings and subheadings to organize content

Applying title case capitalization

Using active voice and clear language

Formatting title page with running head, page numbers, and other elements

Adhering to these conventions helps establish summaries as reputable academic works worthy of consideration.

Example of an APA-Formatted Summary

Here is an example of a properly formatted APA summary:

Smith, J. (2021). The impact of climate change on coral reef ecosystems. Marine Biology , 166 (3), 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-021-03876-8

This study examined the effects of rising ocean temperatures and acidification on coral reef health over 5 years. The author tracked changes in coral cover and biodiversity across 12 reef sites in the Caribbean Sea. On average, coral cover declined by 18.7% and species richness decreased by 22.4% on reefs exposed to prolonged marine heatwaves. The declines were attributed to mass coral bleaching triggered by unusually warm water temperatures. The findings suggest climate change may severely degrade coral reef ecosystems within decades. Further research into mitigation strategies is warranted to preserve these valuable marine habitats.

Key elements like the citation, use of third-person perspective, headings, and formal academic language adhere to APA conventions.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in APA Summaries

When writing APA-style summaries, writers should avoid:

Neglecting to include a full citation for the original work

Using first-person pronouns like “I” or “we”

Inserting opinions or commentary from the summarizer

Failing to use headings to organize content

Including direct quotes from the original text

Avoiding these pitfalls will ensure an APA-compliant summary format.

Practical Tips for Writing Scientific Summaries

Language and terminology: clarity above all.

When summarizing scientific research, it is crucial to use clear, precise language and terminology. Avoid vague or ambiguous phrasing, and opt for specificity whenever possible. Define key terms, acronyms, or concepts that may be unfamiliar to readers. Simplify complex statistical analysis or scientific jargon for general audiences without losing integrity. Stick to plain language with straightforward syntax to ensure readers grasp the key findings.

Brevity vs. Completeness: Striking the Right Balance

Balancing brevity and completeness presents a challenge when summarizing scientific papers. Focus on highlighting the central objective, methodology, results, and conclusions. Resist dwelling on intricate experimental details or tangential discussions. However, take care not to oversimplify complex research. Seek to distill the essence without omitting information that substantively impacts the interpretation or reproducibility of the study. Adhere to word limits when required but avoid excluding key facts, figures, or takeaways in the quest for brevity.

Ethical Considerations in Summarizing Research

When writing scientific summaries, it is vital to represent the original piece fairly and avoid misconstruing the author's intent. Exercise caution when paraphrasing specialized statistical analysis or scientific terminology. Cite sources properly, and refrain from plagiarizing significant portions of the original text. Also, recognize the limitations of summarization; for complete details, readers should consult the primary literature. By maintaining high ethical standards, scientific summarizers uphold the integrity of research communication.

Conclusion: Synthesizing the Essentials

Summarizing scientific journal articles effectively requires adhering to several key best practices. By focusing on the article's key findings, methodology, and conclusions, skilled summarizers can efficiently communicate the essential information to readers.

Recapitulating Best Practices for Summary Writing

When summarizing a scientific article, it's important to:

Highlight the important methods, data, and analyses used in the study

Note the study's core findings and conclusions

Maintain the authors' original meaning and intent

Follow applicable formatting guidelines (e.g. APA style)

Adhering to these principles helps preserve the accuracy and integrity of the research while making the information more readily digestible.

Summary of a Research Article Example

Here is an example summary incorporating the best practices covered in this article:

Smith et al. (2021) set out to understand the effects of climate change on crop yields. The authors analyzed 30 years of temperature, rainfall, and corn production data across major farming regions of the U.S. Midwest. They found that increased temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns have already caused measurable declines in corn yields over the past decade. Based on predictive climate models, the authors expect these negative impacts on crop productivity to accelerate in the coming years if mitigation measures are not adopted. This clearly structured summary concisely conveys the objective, methods, key results, and conclusions of the article while maintaining authorial intent and voice. The formatting adheres to APA guidelines.

In this way, skillful summarization enables efficient scientific communication while upholding standards of accuracy and integrity.

Antonio Carlos Filho @acfilho_dev

The Sheridan Libraries

Write a Literature Review
Sheridan Libraries
Evaluate This link opens in a new window

Not every source you found should be included in your annotated bibliography or lit review. Only include the most relevant and most important sources.

Get Organized

Lit Review Prep Use this template to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline.

Summarize your Sources

Summarize each source: Determine the most important and relevant information from each source, such as the findings, methodology, theories, etc. Consider using an article summary, or study summary to help you organize and summarize your sources.

Paraphrasing

Use your own words, and do not copy and paste the abstract
The library's tutorials about plagiarism are excellent, and will help you with paraphasing correctly

Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated bibliographies can help you clearly see and understand the research before diving into organizing and writing your literature review. Although typically part of the "summarize" step of the literature review, annotations should not merely be summaries of each article - instead, they should be critical evaluations of the source, and help determine a source's usefulness for your lit review.

Definition:

A list of citations on a particular topic followed by an evaluation of the source’s argument and other relevant material including its intended audience, sources of evidence, and methodology

Explore your topic.
Appraise issues or factors associated with your professional practice and research topic.
Help you get started with the literature review.
Think critically about your topic, and the literature.

Steps to Creating an Annotated Bibliography:

Find Your Sources
Read Your Sources
Identify the Most Relevant Sources
Cite your Sources
Write Annotations

Annotated Bibliography Resources

Purdue Owl Guide
Cornell Annotated Bibliography Guide
<< Previous: Evaluate
Next: Synthesize >>
Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 1:42 PM
URL: https://guides.library.jhu.edu/lit-review

How it works

Writing a Summary – Explanation & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at October 17th, 2023 , Revised On October 17, 2023

In a world bombarded with vast amounts of information, condensing and presenting data in a digestible format becomes invaluable. Enter summaries.

A summary is a brief and concise account of the main points of a larger body of work. It distils complex ideas, narratives, or data into a version that is quicker to read and easier to understand yet still retains the essence of the original content.

Importance of Summaries

The importance of summarising extends far beyond just making reading more manageable. In academic settings, summaries aid students in understanding and retaining complex materials, from textbook chapters to research articles. They also serve as tools to showcase one’s grasp of the subject in essays and reports.

In professional arenas, summaries are pivotal in business reports, executive briefings, and even emails where key points need to be conveyed quickly to decision-makers. Meanwhile, summarising skills come into play in our personal lives when we relay news stories to friends, recap a movie plot, or even scroll through condensed news or app notifications on our smartphones.

Why Do We Write Summaries?

In our modern information age, the sheer volume of content available can be overwhelming. From detailed research papers to comprehensive news articles, the quest for knowledge is often met with lengthy and complex resources. This is where the power of a well-crafted summary comes into play. But what drives us to create or seek out summaries? Let’s discuss.

Makes Important Things Easy to Remember

At the heart of summarisation is the goal to understand. A well-written summary aids in digesting complex material. By distilling larger works into their core points, we reinforce the primary messages, making them easier to remember. This is especially crucial for students who need to retain knowledge for exams or professionals prepping for a meeting based on a lengthy report.

Simplification of Complex Topics

Not everyone is an expert in every field. Often, topics come laden with jargon, intricate details, and nuanced arguments. Summaries act as a bridge, translating this complexity into accessible and straightforward content. This is especially beneficial for individuals new to a topic or those who need just the highlights without the intricacies.

Aid in Researching and Understanding Diverse Sources

Researchers, writers, and academics often wade through many sources when working on a project. This involves finding sources of different types, such as primary or secondary sources , and then understanding their content. Sifting through each source in its entirety can be time-consuming. Summaries offer a streamlined way to understand each source’s main arguments or findings, making synthesising information from diverse materials more efficient.

Condensing Information for Presentation or Sharing

In professional settings, there is often a need to present findings, updates, or recommendations to stakeholders. An executive might not have the time to go through a 50-page report, but they would certainly appreciate a concise summary highlighting the key points. Similarly, in our personal lives, we often summarise movie plots, book stories, or news events when sharing with friends or family.

Characteristics of a Good Summary

Crafting an effective summary is an art. It’s more than just shortening a piece of content; it is about capturing the essence of the original work in a manner that is both accessible and true to its intent. Let’s explore the primary characteristics that distinguish a good summary from a mediocre one:

Conciseness

At the core of a summary is the concept of brevity. But being concise doesn’t mean leaving out vital information. A good summary will:

Eliminate superfluous details or repetitive points.
Focus on the primary arguments, events, or findings.
Use succinct language without compromising the message.

Objectivity

Summarising is not about infusing personal opinions or interpretations. A quality summary will:

Stick to the facts as presented in the original content.
Avoid introducing personal biases or perspectives.
Represent the original author’s intent faithfully.

A summary is meant to simplify and make content accessible. This is only possible if the summary itself is easy to understand. Ensuring clarity involves:

Avoiding jargon or technical terms unless they are essential to the content. If they are used, they should be clearly defined.
Structuring sentences in a straightforward manner.
Making sure ideas are presented in a way that even someone unfamiliar with the topic can grasp the primary points.

A jumble of ideas, no matter how concise, will not make for a good summary. Coherence ensures that there’s a logical flow to the summarised content. A coherent summary will:

Maintain a logical sequence, often following the structure of the original content.
Use transition words or phrases to connect ideas and ensure smooth progression.
Group related ideas together to provide structure and avoid confusion.

Steps of Writing a Summary

The process of creating a compelling summary is not merely about cutting down content. It involves understanding, discerning, and crafting. Here is a step-by-step guide to writing a summary that encapsulates the essence of the original work:

Reading Actively

Engage deeply with the content to ensure a thorough understanding.

Read the entire document or work first to grasp its overall intent and structure.
On the second read, underline or highlight the standout points or pivotal moments.
Make brief notes in the margins or on a separate sheet, capturing the core ideas in your own words.

Identifying the Main Idea

Determine the backbone of the content, around which all other details revolve.

Ask yourself: “What is the primary message or theme the author wants to convey?”
This can often be found in the title, introduction, or conclusion of a piece.
Frame the main idea in a clear and concise statement to guide your summary.

List Key Supporting Points

Understand the pillars that uphold the main idea, providing evidence or depth to the primary message.

Refer back to the points you underlined or highlighted during your active reading.
Note major arguments, evidence, or examples that the author uses to back up the main idea.
Prioritise these points based on their significance to the main idea.

Draft the Summary

Convert your understanding into a condensed, coherent version of the original.

Start with a statement of the main idea.
Follow with the key supporting points, maintaining logical order.
Avoid including trivial details or examples unless they’re crucial to the primary message.
Use your own words, ensuring you are not plagiarising the original content.

Fine-tune your draft to ensure clarity, accuracy, and brevity.

Read your draft aloud to check for flow and coherence.
Ensure that your summary remains objective, avoiding any personal interpretations or biases.
Check the length. See if any non-essential details can be removed without sacrificing understanding if it is too lengthy.
Ensure clarity by ensuring the language is straightforward, and the main ideas are easily grasped.

The research done by our experts have:

Precision and Clarity
Zero Plagiarism
Authentic Sources

Dos and Don’ts of Summarising Key Points

Summarising, while seemingly straightforward, comes with its nuances. Properly condensing content demands a balance between brevity and fidelity to the original work. To aid in crafting exemplary summaries, here is a guide on the essential dos and don’ts:

Use your Own Words

This ensures that you have truly understood the content and are not merely parroting it. It also prevents issues of plagiarism.

Tip: After reading the original content, take a moment to reflect on it. Then, without looking at the source, write down the main points in your own words.

Attribute Sources Properly

Giving credit is both ethical and provides context to readers, helping them trace back to the original work if needed. How to cite sources correctly is a skill every writer should master.

Tip: Use signal phrases like “According to [Author/Source]…” or “As [Author/Source] points out…” to seamlessly incorporate attributions.

Ensure Accuracy of the Summarised Content

A summary should be a reliable reflection of the original content. Distorting or misrepresenting the original ideas compromises the integrity of the summary.

Tip: After drafting your summary, cross-check with the original content to ensure all key points are represented accurately and ensure you are referencing credible sources .

Avoid Copy-Pasting Chunks of Original Content

This not only raises plagiarism concerns but also shows a lack of genuine engagement with the material.

Tip: If a particular phrase or sentence from the original is pivotal and cannot be reworded without losing its essence, use block quotes , quotation marks, and attribute the source.

Do not Inject your Personal Opinion

A summary should be an objective reflection of the source material. Introducing personal biases or interpretations can mislead readers.

Tip: Stick to the facts and arguments presented in the original content. If you find yourself writing “I think” or “In my opinion,” reevaluate the sentence.

Do not Omit Crucial Information

While a summary is meant to be concise, it shouldn’t be at the expense of vital details that are essential to understanding the original content’s core message.

Tip: Prioritise information. Always include the main idea and its primary supports. If you are unsure whether a detail is crucial, consider its impact on the overall message.

Examples of Summaries

Here are a few examples that will help you get a clearer view of how to write a summary.

Example 1: Summary of a News Article

Original Article: The article reports on the recent discovery of a rare species of frog in the Amazon rainforest. The frog, named the “Emerald Whisperer” due to its unique green hue and the soft chirping sounds it makes, was found by a team of researchers from the University of Texas. The discovery is significant as it offers insights into the biodiversity of the region, and the Emerald Whisperer might also play a pivotal role in understanding the ecosystem balance.

Summary: Researchers from the University of Texas have discovered a unique frog, termed the “Emerald Whisperer,” in the Amazon rainforest. This finding sheds light on the region’s biodiversity and underscores the importance of the frog in ecological studies.

Example 2: Summary of a Research Paper

Original Paper: In a study titled “The Impact of Urbanisation on Bee Populations,” researchers conducted a year-long observation on bee colonies in three urban areas and three rural areas. Using specific metrics like colony health, bee productivity, and population size, the study found that urban environments saw a 30% decline in bee populations compared to rural settings. The research attributes this decline to factors like pollution, reduced green spaces, and increased temperatures in urban areas.

Summary: A study analysing the effects of urbanisation on bee colonies found a significant 30% decrease in bee populations in urban settings compared to rural areas. The decline is linked to urban factors such as pollution, diminished greenery, and elevated temperatures.

Example 3: Summary of a Novel

Original Story: In the novel “Winds of Fate,” protagonist Clara is trapped in a timeless city where memories dictate reality. Throughout her journey, she encounters characters from her past, present, and imagined future. Battling her own perceptions and a menacing shadow figure, Clara seeks an elusive gateway to return to her real world. In the climax, she confronts the shadow, which turns out to be her own fear, and upon overcoming it, she finds her way back, realising that reality is subjective.

Summary: “Winds of Fate” follows Clara’s adventures in a surreal city shaped by memories. Confronting figures from various phases of her life and battling a symbolic shadow of her own fear, Clara eventually discovers that reality’s perception is malleable and subjective.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is a summary.

A summary condenses a larger piece of content, capturing its main points and essence. It is usually one-fourth of the original content.

What is a summary?

A summary is a concise representation of a larger text or content, highlighting its main ideas and points. It distils complex information into a shorter form, allowing readers to quickly grasp the essence of the original material without delving into extensive details. Summaries prioritise clarity, brevity, and accuracy.

When should I write a summary?

Write a summary when you need to condense lengthy content for easier comprehension and recall. It’s useful in academic settings, professional reports, presentations, and research to highlight key points. Summaries aid in comparing multiple sources, preparing for discussions, and sharing essential details of extensive materials efficiently with others.

How can I summarise a source without plagiarising?

To summarise without plagiarising: Read the source thoroughly, understand its main ideas, and then write the summary in your own words. Avoid copying phrases verbatim. Attribute the source properly. Use paraphrasing techniques and cross-check your summary against the original to ensure distinctiveness while retaining accuracy. Always prioritise understanding over direct replication.

What is the difference between a summary and an abstract?

A summary condenses a text, capturing its main points from various content types like books, articles, or movies. An abstract, typically found in research papers and scientific articles, provides a brief overview of the study’s purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. Both offer concise versions, but abstracts are more structured and specific.

How to Summarize a Journal Article

Last Updated: February 21, 2024 Approved

Reading Article

Planning draft, writing summary, sample summaries.

This article was co-authored by Richard Perkins . Richard Perkins is a Writing Coach, Academic English Coordinator, and the Founder of PLC Learning Center. With over 24 years of education experience, he gives teachers tools to teach writing to students and works with elementary to university level students to become proficient, confident writers. Richard is a fellow at the National Writing Project. As a teacher leader and consultant at California State University Long Beach's Global Education Project, Mr. Perkins creates and presents teacher workshops that integrate the U.N.'s 17 Sustainable Development Goals in the K-12 curriculum. He holds a BA in Communications and TV from The University of Southern California and an MEd from California State University Dominguez Hills. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article has 24 testimonials from our readers, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 1,420,759 times.

Summarizing a journal article is presenting a focused overview of a research study published in a peer-reviewed, scholarly source. A journal article summary provides readers with a short descriptive commentary, giving them some insight into the article's focus. Writing and summarizing a journal article is a common task for college students and research assistants alike. With a little practice, you can learn to read the article effectively with an eye for summary, plan a successful summary, and write it to completion.

The purpose of an abstract is to allow researchers to quickly scan a journal and see if specific research articles are applicable to the work they are doing. If you're collecting research on immune system responses in rodents, you'll be able to know in 100 words not only whether or not the research is in your field, but whether the conclusions back up your own findings, or differ from it.
Remember that an abstract and an article summary are two different things, so an article summary that looks just like the abstract is a poor summary. [1] X Research source An abstract is highly condensed and cannot provide the same level of detail regarding the research and its conclusions that a summary can.

Step 2 Understand the context of the research.

You still need to go back and actually read the article after coming to the conclusion, but only if the research is still applicable. If you're collecting research, you may not need to digest another source that backs up your own if you're looking for some dissenting opinions.

Step 4 Identify the main argument or position of the article.

Look for words like hypothesis, results, typically, generally, or clearly to give you hints about which sentence is the thesis.
Underline, highlight, or rewrite the main argument of the research in the margins. Keep yourself focused on this main point, so you'll be able to connect the rest of the article back to that idea and see how it works together.
In the humanities, it's sometimes more difficult to get a clear and concise thesis for an article because they are often about complex, abstract ideas (like class in post-modern poetics, or feminist film, for example). If it's unclear, try to articulate it for yourself, as best as you can understand the author's ideas and what they're attempting to prove with their analysis.
Try to analyze the author's tone, looking at some of the keywords that really tells you what they are trying to get across to you.

Different areas of focus within a journal article will usually be marked with subsection titles that target a specific step or development during the course of the research study. The titles for these sub-sections are usually bold and in a larger font than the remaining text.
Keep in mind that academic journals are often dry reading. Is it absolutely necessary to read through the author's 500 word proof of the formulas used in the glycerine solution fed to the frogs in the research study? Maybe, but probably not. It's usually not essential to read research articles word-for-word, as long as you're picking out the main idea, and why the content is there in the first place.

These segments will usually include an introduction, methodology, research results, and a conclusion in addition to a listing of references.

Step 1 Write down a brief description of the research.

When you're first getting started, it's helpful to turn your filter off and just quickly write out what you remember from the article. These will help you discover the main points necessary to summarize.

Step 2 Decide what aspects of the article are most important.

Depending on the research, you may want to describe the theoretical background of the research, or the assumptions of the researchers. In scientific writing, it's important to clearly summarize the hypotheses the researchers outlined before undertaking the research, as well as the procedures used in following through with the project. Summarize briefly any statistical results and include a rudimentary interpretation of the data for your summary.
In humanities articles, it's usually good to summarize the fundamental assumptions and the school of thought from which the author comes, as well as the examples and the ideas presented throughout the article.

Step 3 Identify key vocabulary to use in the summary.

Any words or terms that the author coins need to be included and discussed in your summary.

As a general rule of thumb, you can probably make one paragraph per main point, ending up with no more than 500-1000 words, for most academic articles. For most journal summaries, you'll be writing several short paragraphs that summarize each separate portion of the journal article.

Step 1 Do not use personal pronouns (I, you, us, we, our, your, my).

In scientific articles, usually there is an introduction which establishes the background for the experiment or study, and won't provide you with much to summarize. It will be followed by the development of a research question and testing procedures, though, which are key in dictating the content for the rest of the article.

Step 4 Discuss the methodology used by the authors.

The specifics of the testing procedures don't usually need to be included in your summary in their entirety; they should be reduced to a simple idea of how the research question was addressed. The results of the study will usually be processed data, sometimes accompanied by raw, pre-process data. Only the processed data needs to be included in the summary.

Make sure your summary covers the research question, the conclusions/results, and how those results were achieved. These are crucial parts of the article and cannot be left out.

Step 6 Connect the main ideas presented in the article.

This is sometimes more important in summaries dealing with articles in the humanities. For example, it might be helpful to unpack dense arguments about poet George Herbert's relationship to the divine with more pedestrian summaries: "The author seeks to humanize Herbert by discussing his daily routines, as opposed to his philosophies."

This can be difficult for some inexperienced research writers to get the hang of at first, but remember to keep the "I" out of it.

Step 8 Refrain from using direct quotations of text from the journal article.

Check verbs after writing. If you're using the same ones over and over, your reader will get bored. In this case, try to go back and really see if you can make really efficient choices.

Community Q&A

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About This Article

To summarize a journal article, start by reading the author's abstract, which tells you the main argument of the article. Next, read the article carefully, highlighting portions, identifying key vocabulary, and taking notes as you go. In your summary, define the research question, indicate the methodology used, and focus mostly on the results of the research. Use your notes to help you stay focused on the main argument and always keep your tone objective—avoid using personal pronouns and drawing your own conclusions. For tips on how to read through the journal article thoroughly, such as starting with the conclusion, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Writing Article Summaries

Understanding Article Summaries

Common Problems in Article Summaries

Read carefully and closely, structure of the summary, writing the summary.

Sample Outlines and Paragraphs

Understanding Article Summaries

An article summary is a short, focused paper about one scholarly article that is informed by a critical reading of that article. For argumentative articles, the summary identifies, explains, and analyses the thesis and supporting arguments; for empirical articles, the summary identifies, explains, and analyses the research questions, methods, findings, and implications of the study.

Although article summaries are often short and rarely account for a large portion of your grade, they are a strong indicator of your reading and writing skills. Professors ask you to write article summaries to help you to develop essential skills in critical reading, summarizing, and clear, organized writing. Furthermore, an article summary requires you to read a scholarly article quite closely, which provides a useful introduction to the conventions of writing in your discipline (e.g. Political Studies, Biology, or Anthropology).

The most common problem that students have when writing an article summary is that they misunderstand the goal of the assignment. In an article summary, your job is to write about the article, not about the actual topic of the article. For example, if you are summarizing Smith’s article about the causes of the Bubonic plague in Europe, your summary should be about Smith’s article: What does she want to find out about the plague? What evidence does she use? What is her argument? You are not writing a paper about the actual causes of Bubonic plague in Europe.

Further, as a part of critical reading, you will often consider your own position on a topic or an argument; it is tempting to include an assessment or opinion about the thesis or findings, but this is not the goal of an article summary. Rather, you must identify, explain, and analyse the main point and how it is supported.

Your key to success in writing an article summary is your understanding of the article; therefore, it is essential to read carefully and closely. The Academic Skills Centre offers helpful instruction on the steps for critical reading: pre-reading, active and analytical reading, and reflection.

Argumentative Articles

As you read an argumentative article, consider the following questions:

What is the topic?
What is the research question? In other words, what is the author trying to find out about that topic?
How does the author position his/her article in relation to other studies of the topic?
What is the thesis or position? What are the supporting arguments?
How are supporting arguments developed? What kind of evidence is used?
What is the significance of the author’s thesis? What does it help you to understand about the topic?

Empirical Articles

As you read an empirical article, consider the following questions:

What is the research question?
What are the predictions and the rationale for these predictions?
What methods were used (participants, sampling, materials, procedure)? What were the variables and controls?
What were the main results?
Are the findings supported by previous research?
What are the limitations of the study?
What are the implications or applications of the findings?

Create a Reverse Outline

Creating a reverse outline is one way to ensure that you fully understand the article. Pre-read the article (read the abstract, introduction, and/or conclusion). Summarize the main question(s) and thesis or findings. Skim subheadings and topic sentences to understand the organization; make notes in the margins about each section. Read each paragraph within a section; make short notes about the main idea or purpose of each paragraph. This strategy will help you to see how parts of the article connect to the main idea or the whole of the article.

A summary is written in paragraph form and generally does not include subheadings. An introduction is important to clearly identify the article, the topic, the question or purpose of the article, and its thesis or findings. The body paragraphs for a summary of an argumentative article will explain how arguments and evidence support the thesis. Alternatively, the body paragraphs of an empirical article summary may explain the methods and findings, making connections to predictions. The conclusion explains the significance of the argument or implications of the findings. This structure ensures that your summary is focused and clear.

Professors will often give you a list of required topics to include in your summary and/or explain how they want you to organize your summary. Make sure you read the assignment sheet with care and adapt the sample outlines below accordingly.

One significant challenge in writing an article summary is deciding what information or examples from the article to include. Remember, article summaries are much shorter than the article itself. You do not have the space to explain every point the author makes. Instead, you will need to explain the author’s main points and find a few excellent examples that illustrate these points.

You should also keep in mind that article summaries need to be written in your own words. Scholarly writing can use complex terminology to explain complicated ideas, which makes it difficult to understand and to summarize correctly. In the face of difficult text, many students tend to use direct quotations, saving them the time and energy required to understand and reword it. However, a summary requires you to summarize, which means “to state briefly or succinctly” (Oxford English Dictionary) the main ideas presented in a text. The brevity must come from you, in your own words, which demonstrates that you understand the article.

Sample Outlines and Paragraph

Sample outline for an argumentative article summary.

General topic of article
Author’s research question or approach to the topic
Author’s thesis
Explain some key points and how they support the thesis
Provide a key example or two that the author uses as evidence to support these points
Review how the main points work together to support the thesis?
How does the author explain the significance or implications of his/her article?

Sample Outline for an Empirical Article Summary

General topic of study
Author’s research question
Variables and hypotheses
Participants
Experiment design
Materials used
Key results
Did the results support the hypotheses?
Implications or applications of the study
Major limitations of the study

Sample Paragraph

The paragraph below is an example of an introductory paragraph from a summary of an empirical article:

Tavernier and Willoughby’s (2014) study explored the relationships between university students’ sleep and their intrapersonal, interpersonal, and educational development. While the authors cited many scholars who have explored these relationships, they pointed out that most of these studies focused on unidirectional correlations over a short period of time. In contrast, Tavernier and Willoughby tested whether there was a bidirectional or unidirectional association between participants’ sleep quality and duration and several psychosocial factors including intrapersonal adjustment, friendship quality, and academic achievement. Further they conducted a longitudinal study over a period of three years in order to determine whether there were changes in the strength or direction of these associations over time. They predicted that sleep quality would correlate with measures of intrapersonal adjustment, friendship quality, and academic achievement; they further hypothesized that this correlation would be bidirectional: sleep quality would predict psychosocial measures and at the same time, psychosocial measures would predict sleep quality.

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Research Summary: What is it & how to write one

The Research Summary is used to report facts about a study clearly. You will almost certainly be required to prepare a research summary during your academic research or while on a research project for your organization.

If it is the first time you have to write one, the writing requirements may confuse you. The instructors generally assign someone to write a summary of the research work. Research summaries require the writer to have a thorough understanding of the issue.

This article will discuss the definition of a research summary and how to write one.

What is a research summary?

A research summary is a piece of writing that summarizes your research on a specific topic. Its primary goal is to offer the reader a detailed overview of the study with the key findings. A research summary generally contains the article’s structure in which it is written.

You must know the goal of your analysis before you launch a project. A research overview summarizes the detailed response and highlights particular issues raised in it. Writing it might be somewhat troublesome. To write a good overview, you want to start with a structure in mind. Read on for our guide.

Why is an analysis recap so important?

Your summary or analysis is going to tell readers everything about your research project. This is the critical piece that your stakeholders will read to identify your findings and valuable insights. Having a good and concise research summary that presents facts and comes with no research biases is the critical deliverable of any research project.

We’ve put together a cheat sheet to help you write a good research summary below.

Research Summary Guide

Why was this research done? – You want to give a clear description of why this research study was done. What hypothesis was being tested?
Who was surveyed? – The what and why or your research decides who you’re going to interview/survey. Your research summary has a detailed note on who participated in the study and why they were selected.
What was the methodology? – Talk about the methodology. Did you do face-to-face interviews? Was it a short or long survey or a focus group setting? Your research methodology is key to the results you’re going to get.
What were the key findings? – This can be the most critical part of the process. What did we find out after testing the hypothesis? This section, like all others, should be just facts, facts facts. You’re not sharing how you feel about the findings. Keep it bias-free.
Conclusion – What are the conclusions that were drawn from the findings. A good example of a conclusion. Surprisingly, most people interviewed did not watch the lunar eclipse in 2022, which is unexpected given that 100% of those interviewed knew about it before it happened.
Takeaways and action points – This is where you bring in your suggestion. Given the data you now have from the research, what are the takeaways and action points? If you’re a researcher running this research project for your company, you’ll use this part to shed light on your recommended action plans for the business.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

If you’re doing any research, you will write a summary, which will be the most viewed and more important part of the project. So keep a guideline in mind before you start. Focus on the content first and then worry about the length. Use the cheat sheet/checklist in this article to organize your summary, and that’s all you need to write a great research summary!

But once your summary is ready, where is it stored? Most teams have multiple documents in their google drives, and it’s a nightmare to find projects that were done in the past. Your research data should be democratized and easy to use.

We at QuestionPro launched a research repository for research teams, and our clients love it. All your data is in one place, and everything is searchable, including your research summaries!

Authors: Prachi, Anas

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Research Summary Structure, Samples, Writing Steps, and Useful Suggestions

Updated 28 Aug 2024

What is a Research Summary and Why Is It Important?

A research summary is a type of paper designed to provide a brief overview of a given study - typically, an article from a peer-reviewed academic journal. It is a frequent type of task encountered in US colleges and universities, both in humanitarian and exact sciences, which is due to how important it is to teach students to properly interact with and interpret scientific literature and in particular, academic papers, which are the key way through which new ideas, theories, and evidence are presented to experts in many fields of knowledge. A research summary typically preserves the structure/sections of the article it focuses on. Get the grades you want with our professional research paper helper .

How to Write a Research Summary – Typical Steps

Follow these clear steps to help avoid typical mistakes and productivity bottlenecks, allowing for a more efficient through your writing process:

Skim the article in order to get a rough idea of the content covered in each section and to understand the relative importance of content, for instance, how important different lines of evidence are (this helps you understand which sections you should focus on more when reading in detail). Make sure you understand the task and your professor's requirements before reading the article. In this step, you can also decide whether to write a summary by yourself or ask for a cheap research paper writing service instead.
Analyze and understand the topic and article. Writing a summary of a research paper involves becoming very familiar with the topic – sometimes, it is impossible to understand the content without learning about the current state of knowledge, as well as key definitions, concepts, models. This is often performed while reading the literature review. As for the paper itself, understanding it means understanding analysis questions, hypotheses, listed evidence, how strongly this evidence supports the hypotheses, as well as analysis implications. Keep in mind that only a deep understanding allows one to efficiently and accurately summarize the content.
Make notes as you read. You could highlight or summarize each paragraph with a brief sentence that would record the key idea delivered in it (obviously, some paragraphs deserve more attention than others). However, be careful not to engage in extensive writing while still reading. This is important because, while reading, you might realize that some sections you initially considered important might actually be less important compared to information that follows. As for underlining or highlighting – do these only with the most important evidence, otherwise, there is little use in “coloring” everything without distinction.
Assemble a draft by bringing together key evidence and notes from each paragraph/ section. Make sure that all elements characteristic of a research summary are covered (as detailed below).
Find additional literature for forming or supporting your critical view (this is if your critical view/position is required), for instance, judgments about limitations of the study or contradictory evidence.

Read Also: Criminal Justice Research Topics To Impress Your Teacher

Research Summary Structure

The research summary format resembles that found in the original paper (just a concise version of it). Content from all sections should be covered and reflected upon, regardless of whether corresponding headings are present or not. Key structural elements of any research summary are as follows:

Title – it announces the exact topic/area of analysis and can even be formulated to briefly announce key finding(s) or argument(s) delivered.
Abstract – this is a very concise and comprehensive description of the study, present virtually in any academic article (the length varies greatly, typically within 100-500 words). Unlike an academic article, your research summary is expected to have a much shorter abstract.
Introduction – this is an essential part of any research summary which provides necessary context (the literature review) that helps introduce readers to the subject by presenting the current state of the investigation, an important concept or definition, etc. This section might also describe the subject’s importance (or might not, for instance, when it is self-evident). Finally, an introduction typically lists investigation questions and hypotheses advanced by authors, which are normally mentioned in detail in any research summary (obviously, doing this is only possible after identifying these elements in the original paper).
Methodology – regardless of its location, this section details experimental methods or data analysis methods used (e.g. types of experiments, surveys, sampling, or statistical analysis). In a research summary, many of these details would have to be omitted; hence, it is important to understand what is most important to mention.
Results section – this section lists in detail evidence obtained from all experiments with some primary data analysis, conclusions, observations, and primary interpretations being made. It is typically the largest section of any analysis paper, so, it has to be concisely rewritten, which implies understanding which content is worth omitting and worth keeping.
Discussion – this is where results are being discussed in the context of current knowledge among experts. This section contains interpretations of results, theoretical models explaining the observed results, study strengths and especially limitations, complementary future exploration to be undertaken, conclusions, etc. All these are important elements that need to be conveyed in a summary.
Conclusion – in the original article, this section could be absent or merged with “Discussion”. Specific research summary instructions might require this to be a standalone section. In a conclusion, hypotheses are revisited and validated or denied, based on how convincing the evidence is (key lines of evidence could be highlighted).
References – this section is for mentioning those cited works directly in your summary – obviously, one has to provide appropriate citations at least for the original article (this often suffices). Mentioning other works might be relevant when your critical opinion is also required (supported with new unrelated evidence).

Note that if you need some model research summary papers done before you start writing yourself (this will help familiarize you with essay structure and various sections), you could simply recruit our company by following the link provided below.

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Research Summary Writing Tips

Below is a checklist of useful research paper tips worth considering when writing research summaries:

Make sure you are always aware of the bigger picture/ direction. You need to keep in mind a complete and coherent picture of the story delivered by the original article. It might be helpful to reread or scan it quickly to remind yourself of the declared goals, hypotheses, key evidence, and conclusions – this awareness offers a constant sense of direction, which ensures that no written sentence is out of context. It is useful doing this even after you have written a fourth, a third, or half of the paper (to make sure no deviation occurs).
Consider writing a detailed research outline before writing the draft – it might be of great use when structuring your paper. A research summary template is also very likely to help you structure your paper.
Sketch the main elements of the conclusion before writing it. Do this for a number of reasons: validate/invalidate hypotheses; enumerate key evidence supporting or invalidating them, list potential implications; mention the subject’s importance; mention study limitations and future directions for research. In order to include them all, it is useful having them written down and handy.
Consider writing the introduction and discussion last. It makes sense to first list hypotheses, goals, questions, and key results. Latter, information contained in the introduction and discussion can be adapted as needed (for instance, to match a preset word count limit). Also, on the basis of already written paragraphs, you can easily generate your discussion with the help of a conclusion tool ; it works online and is absolutely free of charge. Apart from this, follow a natural order.
Include visuals – you could summarize a lot of text using graphs or charts while simultaneously improving readability.
Be very careful not to plagiarize. It is very tempting to “borrow” or quote entire phrases from an article, provided how well-written these are, but you need to summarize your paper without plagiarizing at all (forget entirely about copy-paste – it is only allowed to paraphrase and even this should be done carefully). The best way to stay safe is by formulating your own thoughts from scratch.
Keep your word count in check. You don’t want your summary to be as long as the original paper (just reformulated). In addition, you might need to respect an imposed word count limit, which requires being careful about how much you write for each section.
Proofread your work for grammar, spelling, wordiness, and formatting issues (feel free to use our convert case tool for titles, headings, subheadings, etc.).
Watch your writing style – when summarizing content, it should be impersonal, precise, and purely evidence-based. A personal view/attitude should be provided only in the critical section (if required).
Ask a colleague to read your summary and test whether he/she could understand everything without reading the article – this will help ensure that you haven’t skipped some important content, explanations, concepts, etc.

For additional information on formatting, structure, and for more writing tips, check out these research paper guidelines on our website. Remember that we cover most research papers writing services you can imagine and can offer help at various stages of your writing project, including proofreading, editing, rewriting for plagiarism elimination, and style adjustment.

Research Summary Example 1

Below are some defining elements of a sample research summary written from an imaginary article.

Title – “The probability of an unexpected volcanic eruption in Yellowstone” Introduction – this section would list those catastrophic consequences hitting our country in case of a massive eruption and the importance of analyzing this matter. Hypothesis – An eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano would be preceded by intense precursory activity manifesting a few weeks up to a few years in advance. Results – these could contain a report of statistical data from multiple volcanic eruptions happening worldwide looking specifically at activity that preceded these events (in particular, how early each type of activity was detected). Discussion and conclusion – Given that Yellowstone is continuously monitored by scientists and that signs of an eruption are normally detected much in advance and at least a few days in advance, the hypothesis is confirmed. This could find application in creating emergency plans detailing an organized evacuation campaign and other response measures.

Research Summary Example 2

Below is another sample sketch, also from an imaginary article.

Title – “The frequency of extreme weather events in US in 2000-2008 as compared to the ‘50s” Introduction – Weather events bring immense material damage and cause human victims. Hypothesis – Extreme weather events are significantly more frequent nowadays than in the ‘50s Results – these could list the frequency of several categories of extreme events now and then: droughts and associated fires, massive rainfall/snowfall and associated floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, arctic cold waves, etc. Discussion and conclusion – Several types of extreme events indeed became significantly more frequent recently, confirming this hypothesis. This increasing frequency correlates reliably with rising CO2 levels in atmosphere and growing temperatures worldwide and in the absence of another recent major global change that could explain a higher frequency of disasters but also knowing how growing temperature disturbs weather patterns, it is natural to assume that global warming (CO2) causes this increase in frequency. This, in turn, suggests that this increased frequency of disasters is not a short-term phenomenon but is here to stay until we address CO2 levels.

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Let Professionals Help With Your Research Summary

Writing a research summary has its challenges, but becoming familiar with its structure (i.e. the structure of an article), understanding well the article that needs to be summarized, and adhering to recommended guidelines will help the process go smoothly.

Simply create your account in a few clicks, place an order by uploading your instructions, and upload or indicate the article requiring a summary and choose a preferred writer for this task (according to experience, rating, bidding price). Our transparent system puts you in control, allowing you to set priorities as you wish (to our knowledge, few competitors have something equivalent in place). Obviously, we can help with many other essay types such as critical thinking essay, argumentative essay, etc. In particular, the research paper definition article on our website highlights a few popular paper types we work with.

Another unique advantage is that we allow and encourage you to communicate directly with your writer (if you wish) guiding his or her work – feel free to request partial drafts, to clarify potential issues you worry about, or even to revise papers as often as needed (for free) until you achieve a satisfactory result. We’ve implemented a system where money is released to writers only after students are fully satisfied with what they get. If you feel like giving it a try, it’s easy and worry-free! Just follow the link below.

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How to Summarize Any Research Article Better: Proven Tips Outlined

Rev › Blog › Marketing › How to Summarize Any Research Article Better: Proven Tips Outlined

You’ve got content gold on your hands— primary and secondary research materials from some of the top market research companies. Now, it’s time to decide how it relates to your products, project, or consumers. What’s more, you need to distill each article’s essential parts into easy-to-read, accurate, informative, and, most importantly, concise summaries. Overwhelming? Maybe. Impossible? Heck no; you just need a good strategy. So, where to start?

You’ve landed on the right page! These tips and techniques provide a template to help guide you through the process.

Know Your Focus

The streaming TV hit, Cobra Kai, brings to mind Mr. Miyagi’s age-old wisdom– ‘Focus, Daniel-San.’ Focus is vital, as some sections of a research article are more relevant to your strategy than others.

For example, a summary crafted for a school project or a university may focus on the experiment itself. In contrast, the article’s results and discussion sections may be more relevant to consumer marketing or for a business model.

Once you establish your focus, you’re less likely to waste time.

Read The Research Article

But before you do, let’s look at the makeup of these articles. Market research, focus group data, and surveys usually consist of five or more sections.

An abstract or hypothesis
Explanation of the methods used
Tests or experiments performed
Summation and or discussion of the results
A list of references or source materials

Read The Abstract

Since some of the research articles you find will not work for your purpose, you should always start with the abstract. It’s an overview of the data and explains the purpose of the study as well as the expected results. So you’ll know whether to include the article or move on to the next piece of research.

Take Good Notes

The next step– read the article from abstract to references. But be prepared! Your mind may wander when faced with numbers, statistics, and long-winded wording. So grab your highlighter and pen and start taking notes.

Depending on the space available, you can write your notes in the margin. If you’re in a time crunch, check out Rev . We’ve designed a convenient application perfect for taking notes! Download our Voice Recorder App for free and read your notes out loud. You’ll get a 99% accurate transcription of your summary notes sent to your email or account with a simple tap.

Research Hack: As an overview, a research article may not include every insight from the participants, interviews, or market data. Take a look at the references. You may find some hidden gems that will help your strategy stand out.

Outline Your Thoughts

You’ve made notes, sifted through the numbers and statistics; but, there’s still a ton of information. An outline will make your writing process much more efficient. Although each research article is relatively straight-forward, you want your summary to stay on strategy.

Write A Summary

Okay, you’re ready to condense someone else’s work. Rather than stress over grammar and length, take the pressure off by writing a rough draft. Use key points from your notes, REV transcriptions, your outline, and the research article’s sections as your guide.

Identify The Goal And The Methods Used

Like the author’s abstract, the beginning of your summary should address the research article’s fundamental objective . This section may also include critical details about demographics, customer behavior, or trends. When summarizing, consider three key questions.

What is the goal of the research?
What methods did the author(s) use?
Are potential obstacles to success listed?

Methods vary in market research. You may have focus groups , in-depth interviews , or online discussions. Depending on the reason for your summary, the raw audio or video clips used in the study may hold nuggets. If full transcripts aren’t available, save time by uploading the clips to Rev. Our human transcription service costs $1.99 per minute, and we offer a 99% accuracy guarantee. We also offer a more cost-effective A.I. speech-to-text solution for only $0.25 per minute .

Describe The Observations

The experiment is the “meat” of the research. In your own words, briefly explain what the author(s) observed as the testing played out in real-time. You can talk about the time it took participants to complete tasks or directives. Were they excited about the client’s brand or disinterested? Basically, you’re recapping the participant’s reactions.

Discuss The Outcome

As with any study, the results make or break the goal of the research. Was the test successful? Was anyone surprised by the outcome, or were there any unexpected developments? Pay careful attention to detail as you layout all conclusions reached by the author(s).

Article Summary Quick Tips: Do This, Not That

Is your head spinning yet? You can simplify the editing process by following these technical takeaways.

Be Careful Not To Draw Your Own Conclusions: You are summarizing the results of the research. The last thing you want to do is editorialize your summary. To avoid this, use the third-person point of view and present tense.
Keep Your Copy Clean And Free Of Errors: Reread your text. Eliminate words like “that,” “in fact,” “however,” and adverbs. Make sure your summary is accurate. Then, use free websites like Hemingway App or paid services such as Grammarly to check for grammar or spelling issues.
Watch For Plagiarism: Unless you’re using a word coined by the researcher, paraphrase your text. If you notice similar wording in your summary, reread the article so you can explain the data in your own words.
Cite Your Sources: Steer clear of directly quoting the research. It’s best to paraphrase the data and reference the source using: the name of the university, the name of the journal and year of publication, or the name of the researcher, team, or society and year of study.

Finalize Your Article Summary

Remember, you want your summary to be clear, straight-forward, and compelling. The market research article or study you’ve chosen may prove vital to you or your client’s business strategy and brand analysis. Take your time. Read and reread your summary. Make sure it’s representative of the research. And always triple-check your text for technical and factual accuracy.

How to Analyze Focus Group Data

Differences in Focus Groups & In-Depth Interviews for a Successful Market Research

How to Use Automatic Transcription as a Marketing Professional

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A critique asks you to evaluate an article and the author’s argument. You will need to look critically at what the author is claiming, evaluate the research methods, and look for possible problems with, or applications of, the researcher’s claims.

Introduction

Give an overview of the author’s main points and how the author supports those points. Explain what the author found and describe the process they used to arrive at this conclusion.

Body Paragraphs

Interpret the information from the article:

Does the author review previous studies? Is current and relevant research used?
What type of research was used – empirical studies, anecdotal material, or personal observations?
Was the sample too small to generalize from?
Was the participant group lacking in diversity (race, gender, age, education, socioeconomic status, etc.)
For instance, volunteers gathered at a health food store might have different attitudes about nutrition than the population at large.
How useful does this work seem to you? How does the author suggest the findings could be applied and how do you believe they could be applied?
How could the study have been improved in your opinion?
Does the author appear to have any biases (related to gender, race, class, or politics)?
Is the writing clear and easy to follow? Does the author’s tone add to or detract from the article?
How useful are the visuals (such as tables, charts, maps, photographs) included, if any? How do they help to illustrate the argument? Are they confusing or hard to read?
What further research might be conducted on this subject?

Try to synthesize the pieces of your critique to emphasize your own main points about the author’s work, relating the researcher’s work to your own knowledge or to topics being discussed in your course.

From the Center for Academic Excellence (opens in a new window), University of Saint Joseph Connecticut

Additional Resources

All links open in a new window.

Writing an Article Critique (from The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center)

How to Critique an Article (from Essaypro.com)

How to Write an Article Critique (from EliteEditing.com.au)

<< Previous: Writing an article REVIEW
Next: Citing Sources >>
Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 9:32 AM
URL: https://libguides.randolph.edu/summaries

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TLDR This smartly selects the most relevant points from a text, filtering out weak arguments and baseless speculation. It allows for quick comprehension of the essence, without needing to sift through all paragraphs. By focusing on core substance and disregarding fluff, it enhances efficiency in consuming information, freeing more time for valuable content.

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TLDR This is a summarizing tool designed for students, writers, teachers, institutions, journalists, and any internet user who needs to quickly understand the essence of lengthy content.

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TLDR This is for anyone who just needs to get the gist of a long article. You can read this summary, then go read the original article if you want to.

TLDR This is for students studying for exams, who are overwhelmed by information overload. This tool will help them summarize information into a concise, easy to digest piece of text.

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Anatomy of an Article

Additional Resources

Anatomy of a Scholarly Article This interactive page explains the different sections that are often present with scholarly/academic articles.
Guide on the Side: Reading Scholarly Articles An excellent step-by-step interactive guide hosted by Indiana University.
How to Read a Journal Article How you should read journal articles and when you should look an article structurally (big picture) versus closely (nitty-gritty). By Frederique Laubepin, Ph.D., Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, University of Michigan (2013)
CLIP Tutorial: Popular and Scholarly Sources This chart explains the differences between popular and scholarly sources.

How To Read a Scholarly Journal Article

This video excels at describing and highlighting the anatomy of scholarly articles and their value to readers.

Things to Consider When Reading a Scholarly Article

Consider the following points when reading a scholarly article:

Know your research question or argument. Though your question/argument may change or evolve as you delve deeper into the research process, you will want to have a solid idea of your research focus.
You don't have to read the entire article in order. Start with the abstract which will give you a general summary of the article. If the abstract seems relevant then move to the conclusion or discussion section of the article to gain a better understanding of the article's main claims. At this point if the article does not seem relevant or useful then discard it. However, if the article does seem useful then spend as much time as necessary reading the article.
Read critically. What is the author's argument? You will need to use your judgment when evaluating each source of information. Further research may be necessary if you find the author to be biased or you do not believe the validity of their argument.
Read the reference section. Reading the references or works cited may lead you to other useful resources. You might also get a better understanding of the major players in the area you are researching.
Take notes. How you do this is up to you. Make sure you keep your research question and argument in mind so you can be more efficient when taking notes.

http://libguides.csuchico.edu/c.php?g=462359&p=3163509

Learn more: Scholarly versus Popular Articles

Scholarly, Trade, & Popular Articles from PALNI on Vimeo .

Academic Article Layout

An abstract is a summary of the main article. An abstract will include information about why the research study was done, what the methodology was and something about the findings of the author(s). The abstract is always at the beginning of the article and will either be labeled "abstract" or will be set apart from the rest of the article by a different font or margins.

The abstract should tell you what the research study is about, how the research was done (methodology), who the research sample was, what the authors found and why this is important to the field.

Introduction

Most articles will start with an introductory section, which may be labeled introduction. This section introduces the research study, the thesis statement and why the research being conducted is important.

Questions to ask while you read:

What is the thesis? What are the authors trying to prove or disprove?
What is the contribution that the authors are making to the field?

Literature Review

The literature review section of an article is a summary or analysis of all the research the author read before doing his/her own research. This section may be part of the introduction or in a section called Background. It provides the background on who has done related research, what that research has or has not uncovered and how the current research contributes to the conversation on the topic. When you read the lit review ask:

Does the review of the literature logically lead up to the research questions?
Do the authors review articles relevant to their research study?
Do the authors show where there are gaps in the literature?

The lit review is also a good place to find other sources you may want to read on this topic to help you get the bigger picture.

Methodology

The methodology section or methods section tells you how the author(s) went about doing their research. It should let you know a) what method they used to gather data (survey, interviews, experiments, etc.), why they chose this method, and what the limitations are to this method.

The methodology section should be detailed enough that another researcher could replicate the study described. When you read the methodology or methods section:

What kind of research method did the authors use? Is it an appropriate method for the type of study they are conducting?
How did the authors get their tests subjects? What criteria did they use?
What are the contexts of the study that may have affected the results (e.g. environmental conditions, lab conditions, timing questions, etc.)
Is the sample size representative of the larger population (i.e., was it big enough?)
Are the data collection instruments and procedures likely to have measured all the important characteristics with reasonable accuracy?
Does the data analysis appear to have been done with care, and were appropriate analytical techniques used?

A good researcher will always let you know about the limitations of his or her research.

The results section in a scholarly article is where the author(s) talk about what they found in their research study. Most scholarly articles will have a section labeled results or findings.

Research articles are full of data . The data should be complete and directly support the conclusions the authors' draw about their research question.

Tables, graphs, and charts are good indicators that this is a research article. The tables should represent the data in a clear and readable manner.

The discussion section is where the author(s) write about what they found and what they think it means. The authors may also draw some conclusions about the research and what significance it has in this section. This section will also tell you what some of the issues were with the research or using a specific population for a research study.

The final section is usually called the conclusion or recommendations. Here is where the authors summarize what they found, why they think their research is significant and, if appropriate, make recommendations about future actions or future research that needs to be conducted. In some cases, the conclusion is part of the discussion section.

At the end of a scholarly article, you will find a list of the works cited by the author(s). This list is called a reference list, works cited or bibliography. In scholarly articles, this list will generally be quite long and include articles, books, and other sources.

When you look at the references, take a look at the dates of the articles and books listed. Are they recent? Does this list include both historic and current articles? If you know something about the topic, do you recognize any of the authors listed?

Scholarly vs Popular

Chart details popular and scholarly article differences. For popular articles, journalists or professional writers are the authors. They are written for the general public and often include color, photos, and advertisements. They tend to be short and are written so the average reader can understand them. They give broad overviews of issues that the public cares about, and they rarely cite their sources. They are recommended for general reading, finding topic ideas, and learning basics or perspectives for your topic. Scholarly articles are written by scholars, faculty members, researchers, or professionals in the field. They are written for other scholars or professionals, so they use a lot of technical jargon and academic language. They are mostly text with perhaps a few charts or graphs. They tend to be lengthy and cover narrow topics related to specific fields. They include full citations for many credible sources. Scholarly articles are recommended as sources for academic work or professional development. They also help you learn about new research being conducted in a given field of study.

Scholarly & Popular Articles by adstarkel . Used under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

How to Tell if a Source is Scholarly/Academic

How to tell if a source is scholarly or academic. First, look for the easy stuff: it should be on the long side, it will be very text-heavy with rare color and or advertisements. Scholarly sources often start with an abstract and finish with a reference list. You can also look at the author to see if a source is scholarly; are they credible with education or experience with the topic? Are they affiliated with a university or organization? Is there more than one author? The source should include its source and cite them in-text and in references. The purpose of scholarly sources is to be academic and informational. They should remain objective and cover specific, narrow topics. Scholarly articles also often introduce new research. Finally, the language of an article can indicate whether or not it is scholarly. Scholarly articles use technical jargon and don't stop to give definitions. They are meant for an audience of academics or professionals, so it's often hard for someone outside the field of study to understand them.

How to tell if a Source is Scholarly/Academic by adstarkel . Used under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Finding Scholarly/Academic Articles

To locate scholarly/academic articles, your best bet is to look in one of our databases or use WorldCat Discovery and limit your search to articles. You will likely find that there are LOTS of popular sources in with the academic ones, even within our databases. Use the Peer-Review Limiter to your advantage. This option is normally located in the left column; you can see screenshots of this option from WorldCat Discovery (left) and our EBSCO databases (right).

This will limit your search to publications that are most scholarly/academic. It does not necessarily filter to include publications that go through a strict peer-review process. It also does not apply the filter at the article level; occasionally it will allows articles that are not scholarly/academic to come through (for example, an editorial opinion piece can be published in a scholarly journal but the article itself is not scholarly).

If you have questions about whether or not a source is scholarly/academic, ask your professor or a librarian!

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Measuring Mathematical Skills in Early Childhood: a Systematic Review of the Psychometric Properties of Early Maths Assessments and Screeners

REVIEW ARTICLE
Open access
Published: 17 September 2024
Volume 36 , article number 110 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

Laura A. Outhwaite ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4454-7775 1 ,
Pirjo Aunio ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0901-3874 2 ,
Jaimie Ka Yu Leung ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7533-5046 3 &
Jo Van Herwegen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5316-1818 1 , 3

Successful early mathematical development is vital to children’s later education, employment, and wellbeing outcomes. However, established measurement tools are infrequently used to (i) assess children’s mathematical skills and (ii) identify children with or at-risk of mathematical learning difficulties. In response, this pre-registered systematic review aimed to provide an overview of measurement tools that have been evaluated for their psychometric properties for measuring the mathematical skills of children aged 0–8 years. The reliability and validity evidence reported for the identified measurement tools were then synthesised, including in relation to common acceptability thresholds. Overall, 41 mathematical assessments and 25 screeners were identified. Our study revealed five main findings. Firstly, most measurement tools were categorised as child-direct measures delivered individually with a trained assessor in a paper-based format. Secondly, the majority of the identified measurement tools have not been evaluated for aspects of reliability and validity most relevant to education measures, and only 15 measurement tools met the common acceptability thresholds for more than two areas of psychometric evidence. Thirdly, only four screeners demonstrated an acceptable ability to distinguish between typically developing children and those with or at-risk of mathematical learning difficulties. Fourthly, only one mathematical assessment and one screener met the common acceptability threshold for predictive validity. Finally, only 11 mathematical assessments and one screener were found to concurrently align with other validated measurement tools. Building on this current evidence and improving measurement quality is vital for raising methodological standards in mathematical learning and development research.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Successful early mathematical development is vital to children’s later education, employment, and wellbeing outcomes (Bailey et al., 2020 ; Crawford & Cribb, 2013 ; Davis-Kean et al., 2022 ; Reyna et al., 2009 ). However, 55% of school-aged children worldwide do not have the level of mathematical skills needed for education and everyday life (UNESCO, 2017 ). Gaps between low and high attaining children also emerge early in childhood and persist throughout education (Aubrey et al., 2006 ). Many children also struggle to learn mathematics with estimates suggesting that between 5 and 14% of children aged 6 years and older have mathematical learning difficulties (MLD) (Morsanyi et al., 2018 ; Muñez et al., 2023 ).

To address some of these issues, research on mathematical learning and development has grown substantially in recent years. This includes knowledge advances on how typically and atypically developing children acquire mathematical skills (e.g. Gilmore, 2023 ; Nelson & Powell, 2018 ; Van Herwegen & Simms, 2020 ), and how cognitive development and the home and school learning environments impact these processes (e.g. Hornburg et al., 2021 ; Nogues & Dorneles, 2021 ; Turan & De Smedt, 2022 ), as well as how children’s mathematical development can be supported through effective interventions (e.g. Ramani et al., 2012 ; Sella et al., 2021 ; Van Herwegen et al., 2018 ). However, recent synthesises highlight the infrequent use of established measurement tools to (i) assess children’s mathematical skills (Outhwaite et al., 2022 ; Simms et al., 2019 ), and the inconsistent criteria used to (ii) identify children with or at-risk of MLD (Lewis & Fisher, 2016 ).

In response, the current review aimed to provide an overview of measurement tools that have been evaluated for their psychometric properties for measuring the mathematical skills of children aged 0–8 years. Specifically, the current review focused on the reliability and validity evidence most relevant to education measurements for assessing mathematical skills and identifying children with or at-risk of MLD.

Defining Mathematical Assessments and Screeners

For the purposes of the current study, measurement tools have been conceptualised as an umbrella term, which includes mathematical assessments and screeners. Mathematical assessments, in general, are designed to measure mathematical development over time and/or in response to intervention (e.g. pre- to post-test). When mathematical assessments include a standardised, norm-referenced sample, they can also be used to identify children with or at-risk of MLD based on percentile rank scores.

In contrast, screeners are measurement tools that are typically used as an efficient means to identify children with or at-risk of MLD, including those who may need additional educational support. In some cases, screeners can also be used to monitor children’s mathematical progress, particularly when they are aligned with the curriculum and are administered at more than one time point (see Nelson et al., 2023 for review on curriculum-based measures). However, as many screeners often include a small number of items and incorporate a relatively concentrated set of maths skills/concepts, caution should be taken when using screeners for this wider purpose. As such, the current review focuses on screeners for the purpose identifying children with or at-risk of MLD.

Defining Mathematical Development

It is widely acknowledged that mathematical development is a complex, multicomponent process with many skills that children need to learn from early childhood onwards (Gilmore, 2023 ). Early childhood is defined here as 0–8 years (UNESCO, 2023 ). Several models attempt to summarise the structure of early maths (Devlin et al., 2022 ), and thus propose the skills that should be included in mathematical assessments for this age group. For example, various models highlight the importance of number skills, such as children’s knowledge of the rules and processes of numbers (e.g. the counting sequence and cardinality) and how they relate to each other (e.g. ordinality and symbolic comparison) (e.g. Aunio & Räsänen, 2016 ; Clements & Sarama, 2009 ; Purpura & Lonigan, 2015 ).

In addition, these models of mathematical development (Aunio & Räsänen, 2016 ; Clements & Sarama, 2009 ; Purpura & Lonigan, 2015 ), also include arithmetic skills, such as addition and subtraction presented in both single and multi-digit operations, as well as word problems. Alongside these number and arithmetic skills, other models of mathematical development propose a broader conceptualisation of early maths, which includes patterning (e.g. recreating repeated patterns of objects), measurement (e.g. comparing objects based on size or weight), and geometry skills (e.g. shape recognition) (e.g. Braeuning et al., 2020 ; Milburn et al., 2019 ). Some of these models (e.g. Clements & Sarama, 2009 ) describe a broad range of mathematical skills developing in early childhood, and others (e.g. Aunio & Räsänen, 2016 ) focus on mathematical skills considered essential for later mathematical development and predicting MLD.

Previous reviews have summarised some measurement tools for children’s mathematical skills, but up to age 6 years with standardisations to the UK population only (Dockrell et al., 2017 ). Other reviews have taken a more global perspective but have focused on curriculum-based measures (Nelson et al., 2023 ) and teacher-implemented assessments for older children, aged 9–12 years (Hakkarainen et al., 2023 ). As such, it is currently unclear which mathematical assessments have been developed and validated to produce reliable indications of children’s skills in early childhood.

Defining Mathematical Learning Difficulties

MLD is an umbrella term used to describe persistent problems with learning and applying mathematical facts and procedures (SASC, 2019 ). It includes children who fit the diagnosis for dyscalculia, mathematical disorder, or mathematical disabilities. As definitions and diagnosis criteria differ significantly between countries and researchers (Szűcs & Goswami, 2013 ), the term MLD will be used in the current study to refer to children who persistently struggle with mathematics.

Children with MLD often experience persistent difficulties with reading and writing numerals, understanding how numbers relate to each other or what numbers mean, as well as remembering number facts, calculation, or mathematical reasoning (Butterworth, 2005 ; Vanbinst et al., 2014 ). Some propose that MLD is caused by a single core deficit to magnitude processing or approximate number sense (ANS) (Butterworth, 2005 ; Mazzocco et al., 2011 ), which is commonly measured using non-symbolic (i.e. dots) magnitude comparison tasks (Nosworthy et al., 2013 ). In contrast, others have argued that symbolic magnitude processing is a critical correlate of children’s mathematical learning and that difficulties with these skills are a better predictor for MLD than other skills, such as phonological processing or working memory (De Smedt, 2022 ). However, it is also possible that different children with MLD struggle for different reasons and that sub-groups might be present (Bartelet et al., 2014 ; Costa et al., 2018 ).

Due to the different definitions for MLD and the varying views of its causes concerning non-symbolic and symbolic magnitude processing, measurement tools that aim to identify children with or at-risk of MLD differ widely in terms of the mathematical abilities covered. For example, while some screeners are short and only assess non-symbolic (i.e. dots) and symbolic (i.e. digits) magnitude processing (e.g. Nosworthy et al., 2013 ), other screeners include a wider range of mathematical abilities (e.g. Butterworth, 2003 ). However, it is currently unclear which measurement tools have been developed and validated to produce reliable identifications of children with or at-risk of MLD.

Indicators of Reliability and Validity for Measurement Tools

The Standards for Educational and Psychological Measurements (AERA et al., 2014 ) and Consensus Based Standards for the Selection of Health Status Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) guidelines (Mokkink et al., 2016 ; Prinsen et al., 2018 ) provide frameworks for appraising the psychometric properties (i.e. reliability and validity evidence) of measurement tools in education and health research. The current review focuses on the reliability and validity evidence most relevant to education measurements for assessing mathematical skills and identifying children with or at-risk of MLD. Common acceptability thresholds for these reliability and validity indicators in the context of educational research are summarised in Table 1 .

Content Validity

Reporting measurement development and content validity is highly important for understanding what the measured construct is and its theoretical background, as well as what the measure is designed for, what is the target population, and the context of use. It is essential to consider if the measurement is relevant and comprehensible for users and how well it covers the phenomena assessed (i.e. comprehensiveness). In reporting articles, this evidence can be seen, for instance, in the theoretical framework explaining the theoretical background of the construct and the focus population. The evidence related to relevance, comprehensibility, and comprehensiveness are commonly gathered by using panels of experts and users, in addition to conducting pilot studies.

Structural Validity and Internal Consistency

When there is empirical data collected with the measurement tool, it is possible to report evidence of structural validity and internal consistency. Evaluations of structural validity focus on examining whether the assessment tool works as assumed, based on theory as a unidimensional or multidimensional measure. This is typically evaluated using factor analysis methods.

Evidence of internal consistency is also related to the structure of the measurement tool and refers to the degree to which included items are interrelated. It is commonly measured using Cronbach alpha for continuous data and Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) coefficient for dichotomously scored data. It can also be measured using split-half reliability, which refers to the extent to which all parts of the assessment tool contribute equally to the overall measurement indicator. Ideally, internal consistencies should be reported for each of the measurement dimensions identified in the structural validity evaluation.

Reliability

The evidence of reliability includes indicators of test–retest and/or inter-rater reliability. The assumption related to test–retest reliability is that the scores of children should remain consistent across multiple measurements, often within a minimum two-week timeframe. Inter-rater reliability evidence is relevant for observational tools and refers to the consistency in scores across at least two observers.

Criterion Validity

Criterion validity produces evidence related to the relationship between the measurement tool under development and theoretically aligned measurement tools and/or external criteria. For example, when making comparisons between the measurement tool under development and other theoretically aligned measurement tools, criterion validity can be measured as concurrent (i.e. a similar measurement tool administered during the same testing period), divergent (i.e. a measurement tool measuring a different skill domain in the same testing period), and predictive validity (e.g. a similar measurement tool administered at a delayed time point). It is recommended that ‘Gold Standard’ measurement tools are used as the reference for criterion validity evaluations. This is because ‘Gold Standard’ measurement tools typically have undergone extensive development, including the establishment of various types of reliability and validity evidence, and are widely accepted as the best measurement tools currently available. When ‘Gold Standard’ measurement tools are used as a reference to the criterion validity of a new measurement tool, it is expected that both tools measure the same concept(s). However, in the field of mathematical learning and development, these ‘Gold Standards’ are infrequently available in many countries and cultures (Hakkarainen et al., 2023 ).

In the case of accurately identifying children with or at-risk of MLD, evidence of criterion validity, in the form of predictive validity and/or diagnostic accuracy, is especially relevant. Predictive validity evidence of a measurement tool includes the assumption that the same children will be identified as having learning difficulties over time. To be able to produce predictive evidence, longitudinal data are needed, preferably at least six months between the measurements to give enough time for learning and development.

In terms of diagnostic accuracy, measurement tools need to be sensitive (e.g. identify true cases of children with or at-risk of MLD) and specific (e.g. identify true cases of children who do not have MLD) enough in the identification of target groups. To reduce the risk of missing children who are genuinely at risk of learning difficulties (i.e. false negatives), indicators of sensitivity are commonly prioritised, at a cost of reduced specificity in measurement tools for screening purposes (Jenkins et al., 2007 ; Klingbeil et al., 2019 ).

Cultural and Language Considerations

Overall, it is also recommended that the psychometric properties of the measurement tool are invariant across different groups of children, such as those from different countries and language groups. This ensures that children from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds are not inherently disadvantaged when using the measurement tool. It also affords the development of broader theoretical understandings of children’s mathematical learning and development (Pitchford & Outhwaite, 2016 ), which have traditionally been focused on Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, and Democratic (abbreviated as WEIRD) societies (Beller & Jordan, 2018 ) in the Minority World (e.g. North America and Western Europe) (Draper et al., 2022 ).

Current Review

To support research in mathematical learning and development, this systematic review aimed to provide an overview of measurement tools that have been evaluated for their psychometric properties for measuring the mathematical skills of children aged 0–8 years. Specifically, the current review focused on the reliability and validity evidence most relevant to education measurements for assessing mathematical skills and identifying children with or at-risk of MLD. The reliability and validity evidence reported for the identified measurement tools were then synthesised, including in relation to common acceptability thresholds. Based on this evidence, measurement tools with the most promising psychometric properties were then identified. Such synthesises are important for supporting researchers, educators, and other stakeholders to select measurement tools that are most suitable for assessing children’s mathematical skills over time, including in response to interventions, and for identifying children with or at-risk of MLD (Hakkarainen et al., 2023 ).

The protocol for this systematic review was pre-registered on the Open Science Framework (blinded for review) with ethical approval granted by (blinded for review). The PRISMA protocol was used to secure the quality of reporting in the current review (Page et al., 2021 ).

Search Strategy

The systematic literature search was conducted across seven scholarly databases and two grey literature sources (see Figs. 1 and 2 ) with the following search string: “Primary school” OR “elementary school” OR kindergart* OR preschool* OR “early years” OR child* OR toddler OR “child development” AND “assessment measure” OR screen* OR “parent report” OR “teacher report” OR “caregiver report” OR observation OR test* OR checklist AND math* OR “number sense” OR numeracy OR symbolic OR “non symbolic” OR counting OR arithmetic* OR geomet* OR shape AND Psychometric* OR “Psychometric Properties” OR reliability OR validity OR sensitivity OR “internal consistency”. A backward citation of included studies ( n = 57) was also conducted, including the test manuals of the measurement tools most frequently used when establishing criterion validity. This search strategy was completed in March 2021 (from January 1990–present) and was updated in June 2023 (from January 2021–present). An additional forward citation search of included studies ( n = 71) was conducted in May 2024 to ensure the latest and most comprehensive data were used in the current review.

PRISMA flow diagram of studies through the systematic review (original search, March 2021)

PRISMA flow diagram of studies through the systematic review (updated search, June 2023 and May 2024)

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To be included in the current review, studies needed to meet the following pre-registered inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Studies needed to focus on mathematical measurement tools for children aged 0–8 years. If studies reported a measurement tool that was suitable for children extending beyond the specified age range (e.g. 5–11 years), this tool was eligible for inclusion. No restriction was placed on whether the measurement tool was designed for typically developing children or for identifying those with or at-risk of MLD. The first author categorised the purpose of each measurement tool (i.e. assessment or screener) based on how it was presented in the included psychometric studies. Twenty percent of measurement tools were also second-coded by the last author with 100% agreement.

Measurement Tool

Included studies needed to report the psychometric properties of a named measurement tool, which measures any area of mathematics, including number, arithmetic, and shape, space, and measure. Measurement tools that assessed children’s mathematics anxiety, language, or vocabulary, as well as teachers/caregivers’ perceptions of the importance of mathematics, were not eligible for inclusion. International large-scale tests (e.g. PISA) or national government statutory assessments were also beyond the scope of the current review and were not eligible for inclusion. No restriction was placed on whether the measurement tool was a direct measure of a child’s mathematical skills or teacher/caregiver report of children’s maths skills.

Psychometric Properties

Studies also needed to describe the psychometric properties (e.g. reliability and validity evidence), of the named measurement tool (see Table 1 ). If some details were missing, these were labelled as ‘not reported’ in the study synthesis.

Other Criteria

No restriction was placed on the geographical location or the language of the measurement tool. However, the full-text records needed to be accessible to download and available in English. Studies also needed to be published since January 1990 and report original data; commentary or position papers were not eligible for inclusion.

Record Screening

As outlined in the PRISMA Flow Diagram (Page et al., 2021 ; see Fig. 1 ), the initial searches in March 2021 identified 61 eligible studies. One reviewer (first author) was responsible for screening all records at both levels. A random 20% sample of records was screened by an additional reviewer (see acknowledgements) to ensure high levels of agreement (κ = 0.84). An updated search strategy was completed in June 2023 (see Fig. 2 ) and identified an additional 10 eligible studies ( n = 71). Consistent with the initial search, one reviewer (third author) was responsible for screening all records at both levels. A random 20% sample of records was also screened by an additional reviewer (first author) to ensure high levels of agreement (κ = 0.93). The forward citation search completed in May 2024 identified a further 18 studies. In total, 89 studies were included in the current review.

Coding Framework

To establish an overview of each of the measurement tools identified in the 89 eligible studies, information was extracted based on the age range covered, country(s) and language(s) in which the tools were developed, and the measurement type (e.g. child-direct) and format (e.g. paper-based), as well as the measurement mode (e.g. individual) and administrator (e.g. researcher/ training assessor). Information relating to the number of items and the mathematical concepts assessed were also extracted, based directly on the terminology used in the eligible studies. Although there were inconsistencies in the terminologies used for different mathematical concepts (e.g. ANS, non-symbolic magnitude, dot comparison), the assessment tasks were broadly categorised as number (N), arithmetic (A), and shape, space, and measure (SSM). These ‘areas of maths’ categories were based on widely recognised models of mathematical development (e.g. Aunio & Räsänen, 2016 ; Clements & Sarama, 2009 ; Milburn et al., 2019 ; Purpura & Lonigan, 2015 ).

Data related to the psychometric properties (i.e. reliability and validity evidence) were also extracted for each of the measurement tools in the study synthesis. These data were then rated based on the common acceptability thresholds in education research (see Table 1 ). If the relevant psychometric property evidence fully met the outlined thresholds, the measurement tool was rated as ‘Acceptable’. If a range of results were reported, which were both above and below the thresholds, it was rated as ‘Mixed’. If the evidence did not meet these thresholds, it was rated as ‘Low’. In cases where acceptability thresholds were not widely available within the literature, conventional thresholds for Pearson’s correlations were used (< 0.30 = low; 0.3–0.5 = medium; > 0.5 = high/acceptable) or were rated as ‘not applicable’ (NA), if other forms of analysis were used.

Overview of Measurement Tools

In total, 66 measurement tools were identified across 89 included studies. This included 41 mathematical assessments designed for children aged 1–14 years and 25 screeners suitable for children aged 3–14 years. As summarised in Table 2 , most measurement tools were child-direct measures ( n = 57) administered individually ( n = 58) with a trained assessor ( n = 54) in a paper-based format ( n = 47). Most measurement tools targeted number ( n = 60) and/or arithmetic skills ( n = 51), with less than half of the identified assessments and screeners measuring shape, space, and measure skills ( n = 26).

Although the identified measurement tools were evaluated in over 55 countries and 31 languages, over half of the assessments and screeners were developed in WEIRD societies in minority countries and/or in English ( n = 36). Only ten assessments and three screeners were evaluated in different countries, cultures, and/or language groups (see Table 2 ). For most of these measurement tools, the different language groups were considered within the same study. However, as the evaluations of the English and Spanish versions of the Birthday Party assessment (Lee, 2016 ), the English and Turkish Versions of the NSS (Jordan et al., 2010 , 2012 ), and the English and Greek versions of the PENS-B screener (Purpura et al., 2015 ) were conducted separately, the synthesis of psychometric properties henceforth refers to 42 assessments and 27 screeners.

Content validity in the form of expert opinion on the suitability and adaptation of test items was only reported for eight mathematical assessments (AAT, Ralston et al., 2018 ; EMAT, Ceylan & Aslan, 2023 ; IDELA, Save the Children, 2019 ; Numeracy-Caregiver report questionnaire, Pushparatnam et al., 2021 ; Numeracy-Child direct assessment, Pushparatnam et al., 2021 ; REMA, Clements et al., 2008 ; Dong et al., 2023 ; TENA, Bojorque et al., 2015 ; ENT Test, Aunio et al., 2006 ) and four screeners (BNPT, Olkun et al., 2016 ; Dyscalculia Test, Eteng-Uket, 2023 ; EM-CBM, Clarke et al., 2023 ; NSS, Jordan et al., 2012 ). All were rated as acceptable.

Structural Validity

Twenty-five mathematical assessments included a measure of structural validity, of which confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was the most frequent approach ( n = 12). However, only 11 assessments met the common acceptability thresholds and were deemed to have good model fit (see Table 3 ). Twelve screeners also included a measure of structural validity, of which CFA was also the most common method ( n = 5) and five screeners met the acceptable threshold criteria (see Table 3 ).

Internal Consistency

Over half of the mathematical assessments reported internal consistency ( n = 27) and most reached the acceptable threshold ( n = 20) (see Table 3 ). However, of the 20 mathematical assessments with acceptable internal consistency, only two assessments reported disaggregated internal consistency results for the multiple dimensions identified in the structural validity evaluation (Birthday Party- Long Version- English, Lee, 2016 ; TRS-EN, Vessonen et al., 2023 ).

Over half of the identified screeners also reported internal consistency ( n = 15) with 13 meeting the acceptable thresholds. Within those that demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, only three screeners reported internal consistency for the different factors identified in the structural validity evaluation (EN- Test, Hellstrand et al., 2020 ; Early Numeracy Screener, Lopez-Pedersen et al., 2021 ; Dyscalculia Test, Eteng-Uket, 2023 ).

Fifteen mathematical assessments included indicators of test–retest reliability (controlled for age) with intervals ranging from 3–7 days to 2–6 months, and nine were rated as acceptable. Eight assessments reported inter-rater reliability, of which seven met the acceptable threshold (see Table 4 ). Twelve of the identified screeners also included indicators of test–retest reliability (controlled for age) with time intervals ranging from 26.5 days to 17 months. However, only four screeners were rated as having acceptable reliability using these methods (see Table 4 ).

Concurrent validity was evaluated with 24 mathematical assessments, with comparisons most frequently made with the Woodcock-Johnson Math subtests ( n = 7). However, only 11 mathematical assessments met acceptability thresholds (see Table 4 ). Divergent validity with standardised language, reading, and non-verbal reasoning measurement tools was considered in seven mathematical assessments, but only two were rated as acceptable. Predictive validity was also considered in seven mathematical assessments, typically over 1–2 years. However, only one was rated as acceptable on the common threshold criteria (TRS-EN, Vessonen et al., 2023 ).

Concurrent validity was also evaluated with 11 screeners, with comparisons commonly made with Woodcock-Johnson Math subtests ( n = 3) and TEMA-3 ( n = 3). However, only one screener met the acceptability thresholds (see Table 4 ). Divergent validity with standardised reading measurement tools was considered in three screeners, but only one was rated as acceptable. Predictive validity was considered in nine screeners, over periods ranging from 10 weeks to 3 years. However, only one screener had acceptable predictive validity (NSS; Jordan et al., 2012 ). All other screeners were rated as either mixed ( n = 1) or low ( n = 7) on the acceptability thresholds (see Table 4 ). Diagnostic accuracy was also considered in ten screeners. However, there were large variations in the reported sensitivity and specificity, with only four screeners meeting the acceptability thresholds (see Table 4 ).

Overall, the Woodcock-Johnson III Math subtests and TEMA-3 were the measurement tools most widely used to assess criterion validity. As such, an overview of these measures is reported in Table 2 with the psychometric properties included in Tables 3 and 4 .

Measurement Tools with Promising Evidence

Table 5 summarises the nine mathematical assessments and six screeners with the most promising psychometric evidence identified within the current review.

This study reports the first pre-registered systematic review of the psychometric properties of mathematical assessments and screeners in early childhood. This review aimed to provide an overview of measurement tools that have been evaluated for their psychometric properties for measuring mathematical skills in children aged 0–8 years. Specifically, the current review focused on the psychometric (i.e. reliability and validity) evidence most relevant to education measurements for assessing mathematical skills and identifying children with or at-risk of MLD (AERA et al., 2014 ; Mokkink et al., 2016 ; Prinsen et al., 2018 ). Eighty-nine individual studies relating to 66 measurement tools were identified, of which 41 were mathematical assessments and 25 were screeners. The psychometric properties of these measurement tools were then synthesised and appraised in line with common acceptability thresholds for the five indicators of reliability and validity (content validity, structural validity, internal consistency, reliability, and criterion validity).

The current review revealed five main findings. Firstly, most measurement tools were categorised as child-direct measures delivered individually with a trained assessor in a paper-based format. Secondly, the majority of the identified measurement tools have not been evaluated for aspects of reliability and validity most relevant to education measures. Only 15 measurement tools met the common acceptability thresholds for more than two areas of psychometric evidence. Thirdly, only four screeners demonstrated an acceptable ability to distinguish between typically developing children and those with or at-risk of MLD. Fourthly, only one mathematical assessment and one screener met the common acceptability threshold for predictive validity. Finally, only 11 mathematical assessments and one screener were found to concurrently align with other validated measurement tools. Directions for future research based on these five main findings will be discussed. Overall, this study is relevant to researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders interested in the effective use of measurement tools to assess young children’s mathematical skills over time, in response to interventions, and/or to reliably identify children with or at-risk of MLD.

Firstly, the current review showed that most measurement tools were categorised as child-direct measures delivered individually with a trained assessor in a paper-based format. Most measurement tools targeted number and/or arithmetic skills, with fewer tools measuring shape, space, and measure skills. Although the identified measurement tools were evaluated in 55 countries and 31 languages, most assessments and screeners were developed in WEIRD societies in minority countries and/or in English. Only ten assessments and three screeners were evaluated in more than one country (see Table 2 ). This poses an ongoing challenge for the field of mathematical learning and development as the underrepresentation of multilingual majority countries (i.e. non-WEIRD societies) in test development leads to publication bias and a lack of scientific evidence related to children’s learning in various countries (Draper et al., 2022 ).

Psychometric Evaluations of the Identified Measurement Tools

Secondly, the majority of the identified measurement tools have not been evaluated for aspects of reliability and validity most relevant to education measures, and few tools met the common acceptability thresholds for these indicators. For example, only nine assessments (DIFER, Csapó et al., 2014 ; Early Years Toolbox, Howard et al., 2022 ; ELOM, Snelling et al., 2019 ; EMAT, Ceylan & Aslan, 2023 ; ENT, Van Luit et al., 1994 ; Van de Rijt et al., 2003 ; IDELA, Save the Children, 2019 ; Parent Ratings of Numeracy Skills, Lin et al., 2021 ; REMA-SF, Weiland et al., 2012 ; TRS-EN, Vessonen et al., 2023 ) and six screeners (ASPENS, Clarke et al., 2011 ; Dyscalculia Test, Eteng-Uket, 2023 ; HoN, Chatzaki et al., 2024 ; MESS-E, Erford et al., 1998 ; NSS [English version], Jordan et al., 2010 ; PENS-B, Purpura et al., 2015 ) were identified to meet the common acceptability thresholds for more than two areas of psychometric evidence (see Table 5 ). These findings suggest that these 15 measurement tools currently have the most promising psychometric evidence to assess young children’s mathematical skills and/or to reliably identify children with or at-risk of MLD.

Although it would be preferable for more measurement tools to meet these criteria, the current findings, combined with the practical information summarised in Table 2 , offer a useful starting point for other researchers to decide which early maths measurement tool to use in their work. For example, the broad skill focus included in the Early Years Toolbox-Early Numeracy (Howard et al., 2022 ) may be suitable for consideration in a maths intervention study with English-speaking children aged 3–4 years (e.g. Scerif et al., 2023 ). Whereas the ease with which children’s early maths skills can be indicated by parent reports in the parent ratings of numeracy skills assessment (Lin et al., 2021 ) may be better suited for large-scale, survey studies (e.g. Cosso et al., 2024 adapted this measure for use with Latine families in the USA).

Identifying Children with or At-Risk of MLD

Thirdly, in terms of diagnostic validity for identifying children with or at-risk of MLD, only the ASPENS (Clarke et al., 2011 ), HoN (Chatzaki et al., 2024 ), and MESS-E (Erford et al., 1998 ) screeners were found to have acceptable sensitivity and specificity. In addition, the SYMP Test (Brankaer et al., 2017 ) also demonstrated an acceptable ability to distinguish between typically developing children and those with MLD. Although the Numeracy Screener (Nosworthy et al., 2013 ) demonstrated specificity greater than 0.70, the sensitivity results were below the common acceptability threshold of 0.90. Establishing strong sensitivity in measurement tools is important for accurately identifying true cases of children with or at-risk of MLD and reducing the risk of missing those most in need (Jenkins et al., 2007 ; Klingbeil et al., 2019 ).

Fourthly, predictive validity can also be used to evaluate the suitability of measurement tools for detecting children with or at-risk of MLD over time. This study found that only seven mathematical assessments and nine screeners included evaluations of predictive validity, and only two measures met the common acceptability threshold (NSS; Jordan et al., 2012 ; TRS-EN, Vessonen et al., 2023 ). However, these results may, in part, be due to issues relating to consistencies with the external measurement tool or criteria. For example, the Early Numeracy Screener showed low predictive validity with the Norwegian national test scores measured 6 months later (Lopez-Pedersen et al., 2021 ). In explaining these results, the authors highlighted inconsistencies in the types of items across the two measurement tools; while the Early Numeracy Screener includes untimed items and emphasises accuracy, the national test has timed items and focuses on fluency.

Criterion Validity with Other Validated Measures

Finally, this study found that only 11 of the mathematical assessments and one of the screeners concurrently aligned with other validated measures of early mathematical skills (see Table 4 ). While establishing the criterion validity of assessments and screeners with other validated measures is considered an important component of the measurement development process (AERA et al., 2014 ; Mokkink et al., 2016 ; Prinsen et al., 2018 ), it remains an ongoing challenge within the field of mathematical learning and development. For example, the credibility of the criterion validity evaluation relies on the relevance, reliability, and validity of the other measures used as the basis for the concurrent comparison. In particular, the two measurement tools must be conceptually aligned (AERA et al., 2014 ). In the current review, the identified measurement tools that did show acceptable levels of concurrent validity were compared to a broad range of measures (see Table 4 ), of which the Test of Early Mathematics Abilities-3rd Version (TEMA-3; Ginsburg & Baroody, 2003 ) and the Woodcock-Johnson III Math subtests (Schrank et al., 2001 ; Woodcock & Johnson, 1989 ; Woodcock et al., 2001 ) were the most widely used.

Most of the identified measures that demonstrated acceptable (concurrent) criterion validity when compared to the TEMA-3 or Woodcock-Johnson Math subtests, broadly speaking, measured similar areas of mathematical development. For example, the PENS-B (Purpura et al., 2015 ) and the TEMA-3 focused on number and arithmetic skills (Ginsburg & Baroody, 2003 ), while the REMA-SF (Weiland et al., 2012 ), CPM (Assel et al., 2020 ), and the Woodcock-Johnson III Applied Problems Math subtest also included shape, space, and measure items (Schrank et al., 2001 ; Woodcock et al., 2001 ). Similarly, most identified measurement tools that did not demonstrate acceptable (concurrent) criterion validity did not conceptually align with the TEMA-3 ( n = 4) or Woodcock-Johnson Math subtests ( n = 6) (see Tables 2 and 4 ). Issues relating to the limited conceptual alignment between measurement tools may be further exacerbated by the lack of consensus relating to the complex structure of early maths (Devlin et al., 2022 ; Gilmore, 2023 ) and the inconsistencies in the terminology used to describe the mathematical skills children need to acquire in early childhood.

Furthermore, although the Woodcock-Johnson Math subtests are also available in Spanish (Muñoz-Sandoval et al., 2009 ) and the TEMA-3 is translated into Mandarin, Spanish, and Dutch (e.g. Paik et al., 2011 ; Huang et al., 2022 ) with psychometric evaluations conducted in China, Singapore, and Spain (Ginsburg & Baroody, 2007 ; Kang et al., 2014 ; Yao et al., 2017 ), these tools are not widely available in a range of different languages and cultures. They also require a trained assessor for administration, as well as substantial costs to purchase the necessary materials, which may limit their usability.

To address some of these challenges, other measurement tools, such as the Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA; RTI International, 2014 ), have recently been adapted for self-administration (i.e. does not require a trained assessor). The SA-EGMA is a child-direct assessment administered on solar-powered, touch-screen tablet devices and requires minimal adult supervision (Pitchford & Outhwaite, 2016 ). It has been piloted in Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Liberia (all English-speaking) with forthcoming adaptations for Malawi and French-speaking countries (Ryan, 2023 ). However, the psychometric properties of the SA-EGMA are yet to be reported.

Directions for Future Research

Based on these five main findings, there are four recommendations for future research to improve the psychometric evidence and availability of measurement tools for mathematics in early childhood. Firstly, future research should focus on developing and reporting the reliability and validity evidence of a broad range of existing measurement tools. This research should aim to establish a set of ‘Gold Standard’ measurements in the field of mathematical learning and development. These measurement tools should span across different ages, mathematical skill areas, and different measurement types (i.e. child-direct and parent/teacher-report), which can be used for different study design purposes (e.g. large-scale longitudinal designs and intervention studies). Overall, this will contribute to improving the methodological rigour of this field.

Secondly, the development of these measurement tools should aim to be inclusive of different languages, countries, and cultures. The current study highlights successful examples where measurement tools have been adapted and/or translated for use in different educational contexts (e.g. Pushparatnam et al., 2021 ; Save the Children, 2019 ; Van Luit et al., 1994 ; Van de Rijt et al., 2003 ). For example, these studies highlight the value of collaborations with country-specific teams to ensure the measurement tool is contextually relevant, adaptable (e.g. translation-back translation procedures), feasible with assessors, and appropriate for use with children across different countries and/or cultural contexts (Pisani et al., 2018 ). Future research in this area should also work towards open-access measurement tools that practitioners can use (Hakkarainen et al., 2023 ) and other researchers in low-resource contexts (Pitchford & Outhwaite, 2016 ). This will help facilitate greater representation of multilingual, majority countries (i.e. non-WEIRD societies) in mathematical learning and development research (Draper et al., 2022 ).

Thirdly, while enhancing existing measures should be prioritised, future research should also seek to develop new measurement tools that utilise innovative technologies. For example, the current study highlights that technology-based, self-administered measurement tools can increase access and participation of marginalised and hard-to-reach groups in research (Ryan, 2023 ). Future research should advance these recent developments and evaluate whether digital measurement tools are reliable and valid in early childhood, particularly with very young children. These new approaches to measurement tools will require interdisciplinary collaborations, including psychologists, education professionals, and software engineers. It will also require co-production with end-users, such as researchers, teachers, and parents (Duraiappah et al., 2022 ).

Finally, to support the development of existing and new measurement tools, future research should also work towards a commonly accepted definition of the structure of early mathematics (Devlin et al., 2022 ; Gilmore, 2023 ). This will elucidate which skills should be included in these measurement tools. Furthermore, an understanding of the maths skills included within measurement tools, using common terminology, can support theoretical insights into the processes and mechanisms involved in early mathematical development.

Limitations of the Current Review

Although this study conducted a systematic search of the literature to identify measurement tools for early mathematical skills, not every available measure was included in the current synthesis. This was because the search strategy was designed to identify studies that had evaluated the psychometric properties of measurement tools, rather than identifying measurement tools based on their use in intervention, longitudinal, or other studies. Future synthesises should incorporate this broader search strategy, as well as qualitative methods with the mathematical learning and development research and practitioner communities to establish which measurement tools are most widely used in the field, and why. This will provide a more in-depth understanding of the best practices and challenges when measuring mathematical skills in early childhood.

Similarly, the current review was affected by publication bias as the search strategy only incorporated full-text studies that were available in English. Although the current review identified measurement tools that are available in 31 languages, some measures, such as the Tempo Test Rekenen (TTR; De Vos, 1992 ), were excluded from the current review. This was because the studies and/or test manuals, which reported the psychometric properties of these measures, were only available in other languages, such as in French in the case of the TTR (Lafay et al., 2020 ). To address this bias, future studies should seek to systematically review measurement tools that are specifically available in languages other than English. This will contribute to efforts to increase diverse representation in child development research. The current review also does not include a quality assessment of the included studies (e.g. sample size and characteristics, analytical methods justified and appropriate). This should also be incorporated into future research, alongside the quality assessments of other identified measurement tools (e.g. using the COSMIN taxonomy).

This pre-registered systematic review is the first study to provide an overview of mathematical measurement tools for children aged 0–8 years and a synthesis of the reported reliability and validity evidence, including in relation to common acceptability thresholds. Although a relatively large number of assessments ( n = 41) and screeners ( n = 25) were identified in the current review, significant gaps remain in the appraisal of these measurement tools. Building on this evidence and improving measurement quality is vital to raising methodological standards in mathematical learning and development research.

Data Availability

Data is available by reasonable request to the first author.

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Food loss and food waste research in Latin America: scoping review

Perda e desperdício de alimentos na américa latina: revisão de escopo.

The article aims to identify stage of the food supply chain (FSC) has the greatest food loss and waste (FLW), the factors that influence and economic, social and environmental impacts in Latin America countries. We carried out a scoping review of observational studies, case reports and interventional studies in January 2023. Searches were performed in scientific databases and hand-searching of reference lists. Data on the included studies were summarized with narrative synthesis. In total 16 articles met the inclusion criteria. The greatest FLW occur in the early and middle stages of the FSC, mainly during storage. The main causes were connected to financial, managerial and operational limitations related in harvesting techniques, storage and cooling facilities, infrastructure and marketing systems. Food waste (FW) is also a result of lack of appropriate storage facilities and efficient transport systems, market fluctuations and systems. Only one study presented results on the environmental impact of FW. There is a higher occurrence of food loss, characterized by decrease in the quantity and quality of food in the first three stages of FSC.

Key words: Food Loss; Food Waste; Food supply chain; Food production; Latin America

O objetivo do artigo é identificar etapa da cadeia de abastecimento de alimentos (CAA) com maior perda e desperdício de alimentos (PDA), os fatores que influenciam e os impactos econômicos, sociais e ambientais nos países da América Latina. Realizamos revisão de escopo de estudos observacionais, relatos de caso e estudos intervencionais em janeiro de 2023. As buscas foram realizadas em bases de dados científicas e busca manual de listas de referências. Os dados dos estudos incluídos foram resumidos com síntese narrativa. No total, 16 artigos atenderam aos critérios de elegibilidade. As maiores PDA ocorrem nas fases inicial e intermediária do CAA, principalmente durante o armazenamento. Principais causas das perdas eram financeiras, gerenciais e operacionais relacionadas a técnicas de colheita, instalações de armazenamento e resfriamento, infraestrutura e sistemas de comercialização. Desperdício é resultado da falta de instalações de armazenamento adequadas e sistemas de transporte eficientes, flutuações de mercado e de sistemas. Um estudo apresentou resultados sobre o impacto ambiental das perdas. Há maior ocorrência de perdas alimentares, caracterizadas pela diminuição da quantidade e qualidade dos alimentos nas etapas iniciais da CAA.

Palavras-chave: Perda de alimentos; Desperdício de alimentos; Cadeia de Abastecimento de Alimentos; Produção de Alimentos; América Latina

Introduction

Almost one third of the total food production on the globe is discarded as food loss and/or waste (FLW) 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . The recent report by the United Nations Environment Programme (PNUA) estimates that in 2019 around 931 million tons of food were wasted. This suggests that 17% of total global food production can be wasted 2 2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021. . Food loss (FL) refers to decrease in the amount and quality of the edible part of food produced for human consumption in the first three stages of the food supply chain (FSC), namely: production, post-harvest and processing, whereas food waste (FW) refers to the final stages of FSC: distribution/retail and consumption 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 3 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Definitional Framework of Food Loss [Internet]. 2014 [cites 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/at144e/at144e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/at144e/at144e.pdf... , 4 4 Ishangulyyev R, Kim S, Lee SH. Understanding Food Loss and Waste-Why Are We Losing and Wasting Food? Foods 2019; 8:297. .

The amount of FLW varies between countries, since it is influenced by income, urbanization and economic growth level 5 5 Chalak A, Abou-Daher C, Chaaban J, Abiad MG. The global economic and regulatory determinants of household food waste generation: A cross-country analysis. Waste Management 2016; 48:418-422. . Food is mostly lost during production, post-harvest, processing and distribution in low-income countries, and the smallest fraction of it is wasted at consumer level 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 6 6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf. .

Given such challenging scenario it is necessary to understand that FLW reduction strategies must be region-specific; they should be adapted to local situations (e.g., energy limitation, infrastructure limitation), and target FL, that occurs mainly in developing countries, and FW, that occurs in developed countries, in order to properly manage the several barriers 7 7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443. .

FLW reduction is a priority in the global political agenda due to its impact on food security; natural environmental resources, mainly land, water, and energy; and human health 7 7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443. , 8 8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633. . The literature highlights the need of paying closer attention to countries Latin America, outside the United States and European countries, mainly to large developing countries and emerging economies, since they have less FLW information available, although, assumingly, they must account for large amounts of it 8 8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633. , 9 9 Fabi C, Cachia F, Conforti, P, English A, Moncayo JR. Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice. Food Policy 2021; 98:101934. .

The aim of the present scoping review is to better understand the FLW process in Latin American countries, considering the four stages (production, post-harvest, processing and distribution/retail) of the food supply chain (FSC) which are the stages of greatest loss in low-income countries 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 6 6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf. . Clearly understanding FLW is essential, given the scarcity of data about it in developing countries, mainly in Latin America 9 9 Fabi C, Cachia F, Conforti, P, English A, Moncayo JR. Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice. Food Policy 2021; 98:101934. , 10 10 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26. . This shall help organizing the few data available, identifying the existing gaps and observing the direct efforts to prevent and reduce FLW in Latin America. The goal is to answer the following questions:

What is the FSC stage (production, post-harvest and processing, distribution/retail) accounting for the greatest food loss and food waste generation rates in Latin American countries?

What are the economic, social, environmental factors influencing food loss and food waste generation in Latin American countries?

What are the economic, social and environmental impacts of food loss and food waste generation on Latin American countries?

Scoping review of observational, case report and interventional studies about FW and FL in Latin American countries was carried out. Latin America is composed of 20 countries, namely: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, Uruguay and Venezuela. It recorded human development index of 0.766, back in 2019 11 11 Conceição P. Human Development Report 2020. The next frontier Human development and the Anthropocene [Internet]. [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/... .

The current scoping review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and the recommendation in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 12 12 Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. 2ª ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2019. . The SPIDER criteria (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research Type) were used to define the research question 13 13 Methley AM, Campbell S, Chew-Graham C, McNally R, Cheraghi-Sohi S. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: a comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14:579. ( Chart 1 ).

We selected all studies that met the inclusion criteria for the conduction of the present study in January 2023.

Search Strategy

Searches were performed in the PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Agricola, EBSCO’S Academic Search Ultimate, Cab Direct databases. They concerned articles and the hand-searching of reference lists unpublished articles and thesis repositories were also used as data sources. Publication date and language were not used as exclusion criteria. The adopted keywords were food waste, food loss, garbage, waste management, food wastefulness, waste prevention, food wastage, food waste quantification, food waste reporting, amount of food waste. Search strategies used in each database are described in Chart 2 .

Inclusion criteria

Observational studies, case reports and interventional studies about food loss and food waste generation were used to quantify and assess factors influencing the impacts of destiny and initiatives to reduce FLW in Latin American countries. Comments and general reviews were excluded from the search, in the first moment.

Articles’ selection, data-collection process and data items

Titles and abstracts were read, in duplicate, by two appraisers (BVLC and NGC) in order to apply the inclusion criteria - disagreements were solved by consensus. The ENDNOTE X9 software was used in titles and abstracts’ reading.

Data were independently extracted in duplicate by two appraisers (BVLC and NGC). Data included year when the study was performed and reported; language; study design; location of study; food under study; food supply chain stage when the greatest loss was recorded; FLW amount; FLW influence factors; economic, social and environmental impacts; FLW destination and initiatives to reduce FLW in Latin American countries.

We adapted the instrument to assess the quality of articles, Newcastle-Ottawa (NOS), as we did not find a specific instrument suitable for our type of study. However, two authors (BVLC and NGC) have assessed only three relevant article-quality domains: a) using validated measurement tool or secondary data (Selection section - item 4), b) clearly and properly describing the statistical test for data analysis (Outcome section - item 2), c) complete results consistent with the methodology (Comparability section). For each domain, 1 point was assigned, with the final score corresponding to the general quality of the article. Thus, score 1 refers to low quality (adequacy in only one domain) and score 3 attributes better methodological quality (adequacy in all three domains). Differences in data quality assessment scores, seen as uncommon between appraisers, were solved by consensus, or by a third author.

Results and discussion

In total, 1,464 citations were identified in the assessed databases ( Figure 1 ). After titles and abstracts’ reading, 25 references were considered eligible for the review; therefore, they were read in full. We added four articles found through the hand-searching of reference lists to the sample. Unpublished articles and thesis were not found. In total, 16 articles 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. met the inclusion criteria, so they were included in the present scoping review.

Thumbnail Figure 1 PRISMA flow chart for article selection.

The features of the selected studies are shown in Chart 3 . Fourteen (14) of the 16 eligible articles had followed the cross-sectional design, two of them were case reports - no interventional trial was identified. Five (5) of the selected studies had evaluated Brazilian data 16 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. , 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... , 19 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. , 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. , 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. , and the others referred to studies carried out in Guatemala (n=1) 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. , Haiti (n=1) 16 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. , Colombia (n=3) 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... , 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. , 25 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. , Mexico (n=1) 23 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. , Peru (n=1) 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. , Ecuador and Peru (n=1) 27 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. , Ecuador, Peru, Honduras and Guatemala (n=2) 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... , 22 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. , and Latin America (n=1) 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Farmers and traders (n=9) 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. ; only farmers (n=4) 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. - 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... or only traders (n=3) 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. - 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. were respondents in the selected articles. Most studies have evaluated the entire food supply chain (n=9) 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. , three of them assessed the distribution 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. - 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. and four studies focused on post-harvest handling and storage 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. - 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... . The individual quality of the assessed studies ranged from 1 to 3 ( Chart 3 ). Only seven studies (43.7%) presented better methodological quality, demonstrating the need for more robust studies with reliable and rigorous methodology to produce scientific evidence on the topic.

Results recorded in the selected studies were organized based on food loss and food waste concepts due to deterioration and losses at production level and to deterioration at distribution/retail 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 6 6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf. . Chart 4 presents results in primary studies about food losses at initial FSC stages, Chart 5 shows results recorded for food waste at distribution and Chart 6 presents food loss and waste at all FSC stages.

Based on Charts 4 and 6, the total number of 13 selected studies reported food loss 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. - 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. . One study evidenced 2,220 kg/year of food loss per capita in Latin America 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Eleven studies mentioned food losses at food supply chain’s early and middle stages 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. - 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... , 22 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. , 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. , mainly during storage 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. , 15 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. , 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... , 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. . The study carried out in Peru and Ecuador showed major food loss frequency at food production, before harvest (>70%) 27 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. . The Colombian studies showed FLW higher in farms (58%) than in trade (22%) and retail establishments (25%), but FLW rates tended to be concentrated in few cultures - tomatoes’ FLW reached 11.2%, on average) 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. , 25 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. . The largest FLW rates in Peru were related to farm size; smaller farms accounted for higher food loss rates 27 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. .

Food commodities with the highest loss rates encompass fruits and vegetables, roots and tubers, and cereals 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. , 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. .

The main food loss cause reports concerned financial, managerial and harvesting technique limitations; storage and difficult climatic conditions; as well as poor infrastructure, and packaging and marketing systems 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 15 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. , 16 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363. , 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... , 22 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. , 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. , 27 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. . The main factors influencing such losses in the selected studies were climatic factors, excessive humidity; as well as the presence of rodents, fungi, birds and insects; and low seed quality 14 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21. , 15 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. , 17 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana. https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... , 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... , 22 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. , 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. . One of the selected studies mentioned theft as one of the causes of food loss 15 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608. .

According to farmers, losses are caused in small food (potatoes, for example) during harvest, mechanical damage due to mistaken hoe using, low market price, lack of manpower, and inexperienced employees. Losses during harvest are caused by poor quality of food (potatoes, for example) inserted into the bags, hit during transportation or food that is accidentally smashed during separation. Losses at the storage stage often happen due to the presence of moth and insects in the storage area. Retailers and wholesalers state that food losses are caused by mechanical damage to the product 27 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. .

One of the selected studies showed that donation was practiced by 72% of farmers, 69% of traders and 44% of retailers. Home-consumption is retailers’ second favorite option to avoid the disposal of unmarketable food. Farmers and traders never use food waste for home-consumption 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. .

One study suggested 1) food waste donations to food banks; 2) modernizing supply centers to mitigate food losses due to infrastructure constraints; 3) developing research related to pest management, agro-industrialization and food processing, post-harvest practices, packaging, logistics and waste disposal; 4) carrying out public food purchases from family farms, such as the Food Acquisition Program and the National School Feeding Program, as strategies to reduce FL 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. .

None of the selected studies presented results about the FL impact on Latin American countries.

Based on Charts 5 and 6 , food waste was reported in 12 studies 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881. 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65. - 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. . Three studies assessed the only distribution stage 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. - 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. . The rate of purchased food discarded on a weekly basis reached 14.24%, it was mainly observed for banana, papaya, tomato and pepper 19 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. , 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. , 26 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716. .

Fruits and vegetables are lost due to natural food deterioration, since it is accelerated by lack of specific conservation procedures, poor storage facilities, excessive customers’ food handling and by inadequate material management (inappropriate replacement and vehicles’ poor transport conditions) 19 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. , 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. . This authors also pointed out that food waste is also related to purchased food volume and farm income; higher income results in buying higher volumes of food and, consequently, in greater losses 19 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. .

The other factors influence the FW was lack of appropriate storage facilities and efficient transport systems, varying customer demand, market fluctuations, market systems (diversity of supply channels in formal and informal food chains) 21 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf. https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958. - 23 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. , 28 28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. .

The studies showed to initiatives to reduce FW such as separating recyclable waste, donating recyclable resources, carefully packaging products, ordering only what is necessary, keeping the workplace clean, strict quality control when receiving products, team training, preference by local suppliers and the use of processing and packaging technologies 18 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170. - 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. . One study cited biogas production through anaerobic digestion, incineration with energy recovery, generation of new products (conversion of organic waste into fertilizer) 20 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. .

Only one study cited the impact of FLW in greenhouse gas emissions for landfilled, fertilizer use, biodiversity loss, water and energy use 23 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. .

Similar in Latin America countries, the largest amount of FLW in Turkey is generated in the initial steps of the FSC. But in Turkey the mostly FLW concentrated in the agricultural production step. This process generates loss of approximately 13.7 million tons, and it corresponds to 11.9% of the total food produced in Turkey 29 29 Tatlidil PFF, Dellal I, Bayramoglu Z. Food Losses and Waste in Turkey [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc/. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en... , 30 30 Salihoglu G, Salihoglu NK, Ucaroglu S, Banar M. Food loss and waste management in Turkey. Bioresour Technol 2018; 248(Pt A):88-99. . The main reasons reported for FLW were lack of cooperation, using traditional methods, rejection to new agricultural knowledge and technologies, using fertilizers and pesticides, damage to crops (tuber cutting, early uprooting, among others) and poor storage conditions 29 29 Tatlidil PFF, Dellal I, Bayramoglu Z. Food Losses and Waste in Turkey [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc/. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en... .

In the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the estimates for all food lost is roughly 37% the total of produced food, or 120-170 kg/year per capita 31 31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12. . There is consensus that it mostly happens in SSA at the middle FSC stages. Grains and cereals are lost during post-harvest handling and storage in farm, whereas fresh products, meat and seafood losses mainly happen at the processing, packaging and distribution stages in SSA 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... , 32 32 Hodges RJ, Buzby JC, Bennett B. Postharvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use. J Agricult Sci 2011; 149:37-45. , 33 33 World Bank. Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2824. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/hand... .

In the United States (USA), the biggest FSC losses happen at the middle FSC stages, mainly at the food handling and processing stages (15%). However, higher FW values were observed at consumer level - it reached 21%. Based on these results, food is lost at early FSC stages or wasted at the final consumer stage, in the USA 34 34 Dou Z, Ferguson JD, Galligan DT, Kelly AM, Finn SM, Giegengack R. Assessing U.S. food wastage and opportunities for reduction. Global Food Security 2016; 8:19-26. .

It is important to highlighting the impossibility of comparing findings in the selected studies, because there was no data standardization. It was not only difficult comparing values due to included crop differences, value chain levels, scales, agroecologies, seasonality and geography, but also because of the often unsatisfactory adopted methodologies 31 31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12. , 35 35 Affognon H, Mutungi C, Sanginga P, Borgemeister C. Unpacking postharvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis. World Development 2015; 66:49-68. .

Furthermore, FLW data were relatively underexplored and recorded, mainly in Latin American studies 10 10 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26. . In total, 11 of the 20 Latin American countries did not have a single research on FLW. Brazil stood out for being the most productive country in terms of scientific research on this topic among the nine countries with publications in this field.

Such a shortage in research development on FLW in Latina American countries is similar to that observed for the Arabian world 36 36 Abiad MG, Meho LI. Food loss and food waste research in the Arab world: a systematic review. Food Sec 2018; 10:311-322. . The main factors justifying this scarcity of articles lies on lack of interest by local scientists in the subject; on the small number of local scientists in the FLW field, and on lack of governmental funding and support 36 36 Abiad MG, Meho LI. Food loss and food waste research in the Arab world: a systematic review. Food Sec 2018; 10:311-322. . It is noteworthy that no attention was paid to other FSC stages, such as production before harvest, processing and packaging.

Assumingly, there is no consensus on the golden methodology to evaluate FLW 37 37 Lipinski B, Hanson C, Lomax J, Kitinoja L, Waite R, Searchinger T. Reducing Food Loss and Waste. Working Paper, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute; 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: http://www.worldresourcesreport.org. http://www.worldresourcesreport.org... , since all methodologies available present some limitations 4 4 Ishangulyyev R, Kim S, Lee SH. Understanding Food Loss and Waste-Why Are We Losing and Wasting Food? Foods 2019; 8:297. . Methodologies range from modeling/simulation to direct observation, to residual methods. All these methodologies are suitable when they are appropriately used, but they can be easily misused and misinterpreted 31 31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12. .

Lack of standardized measurement protocols associated with data scarcity leads to widely varying FLW estimates in the international literature, as well as to uncertainties about the estimated volumes 2 2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021. , 38 38 Parfitt J, Barthel M, Macnaughton S. Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365(1554):3065-3081. . However, FLW quantification is only the first step allowing the best understanding about how much, why and where FLW happens 8 8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633. , 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. . And the report by the United Nations Environment Programme (PNUA) published in 2021 presents a methodology for countries to quantify food waste at the level of households, food services and food trade 2 2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021. .

It is important measuring food losses or waste generation, at each FSC stage, for managerial purposes 1 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Better data measuring and monitoring aim at helping to better understand the social, economic and environmental impacts of FLW, at identifying the hotspots where actions should be prioritized, at developing long-term scenarios to inform relevant policy-making, at understanding what policies and strategies have been most-effective at achieving FLW reduction and at, overall, contributing to FLW reduction and to food system sustainability 8 8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633. .

One of the main results of this literature review lies on the low expressiveness, or lack, of studies introducing and discussing the economic, environmental and social impacts of food loss and waste. Food losses represent the waste of production resources such as land, water, energy and inputs 39 39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396. https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

FAO quantified the food wastage footprint on natural resources and showed that total carbon footprint of food wastage, including land use change, is around 4.4 GtCO 2 eq per year. The carbon footprint of a food product is the total amount of GHG emitted throughout its lifecycle, expressed in kilograms of CO 2 -equivalents 40 40 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint-Impacts on natural resources. Rome: FAO; 2013. . It should be noted that producing food that will not be consumed leads to unnecessary CO 2 emissions, in addition to food economic value loss. In addition, economically avoidable food losses have direct, and negative impact, on both farmers and consumers’ income; these people can live on the margins of food insecurity. Moreover, food loss reduction could have immediate and significant impact on the livelihood of these populations 39 39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396. https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

Reducing FLW is crucial and it can contribute to higher efficiency and yield of water, land and nutrient resources, as well as lead to a more environmentally sustainable agricultural production and consumption system 7 7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443. . Source reduction and prevention strategies are the favorite methods to achieve FLW reduction.

Other potential solutions include feeding people in food banks and other donation programs, using animal feed, industrial use of food waste such as fuel rendering and conversion, using it for composting, and finally (as last resort) discharging it in landfills or using it in incinerators 39 39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396. https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

Other preventive actions need to be considered, namely: avoiding food overproduction or surplus at production and consumption stages; preventing avoidable waste generation by means of the food value chain; providing knowledge and information to consumers and educating them about the monetary value of environmental food-waste externalities; educating individuals and do community interventions to ensure “cascade training”; and allocating production surpluses through redistribution networks, institutions and food banks to people who are facing food insecurity 7 7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443. . Education is related to prevention methods that act directly to change the behaviors, mindsets, and awareness of all involved in the food chain 41 41 Moraes NV, Lermen FH, Echeveste MES. A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. J Environ Manage 2021; 286:112268. .

However, there must also be governmental actions for the implementation of programs and public policies aimed at reducing the FWL through the establishment of goals and mitigation of factors that cause waste. The implementation of policies is an efficient way to involve the different actors in the FSC because it forces them to prioritize the prevention and minimization of FWL in their business. These policies need to be inspected and supervised to ensure compliance with the guidelines 41 41 Moraes NV, Lermen FH, Echeveste MES. A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. J Environ Manage 2021; 286:112268. .

Potential limitations of this review should be taken into consideration. The main expressive terms of the theme were not indexed. Although a wide search was performed, with no language or time-related limits, a small number of articles about FLW was found. The shortage of articles may reveal that the subject has not yet been the subject of studies, involving the adoption of different designs and strategies. Most studies were carried out in Brazil; therefore, most results only represent the Brazilian FLW. The scarcity of studies on FLW available in scientific databases 24 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. points towards low investment in research focused on this topic, mainly in Latin American countries 10 10 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26. . Thus, understanding how much, why and where FLW takes place may be greater than the one found in this study.

Despite of mentioned limitations, the current study has several strengths, such as using a rigorous methodology based on PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines; providing a comprehensive literature search that encompassed seven electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Agricola, EBSCO’S Academic Search Ultimate, Cab Direct); search, selection and data extraction in separate, and in duplicate, by two researchers, based on third-party disagreement solution; and presenting well-defined inclusion criteria that have prioritized studies focused on FLW in Latin American countries.

In conclusion, Latin American countries account for high rates of food loss, which is featured by decreased amount and quality of food in the first three FSC stages, mainly during storage. The main causes of FSC in these countries are related to financial, managerial and operational limitations during food collection, storage and refrigeration.

Acknowledgments

This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.

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16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.
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20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.
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23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.
24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.
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29 Tatlidil PFF, Dellal I, Bayramoglu Z. Food Losses and Waste in Turkey [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc/. » https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc
30 Salihoglu G, Salihoglu NK, Ucaroglu S, Banar M. Food loss and waste management in Turkey. Bioresour Technol 2018; 248(Pt A):88-99.
31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12.
32 Hodges RJ, Buzby JC, Bennett B. Postharvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use. J Agricult Sci 2011; 149:37-45.
33 World Bank. Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2824 » https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2824
34 Dou Z, Ferguson JD, Galligan DT, Kelly AM, Finn SM, Giegengack R. Assessing U.S. food wastage and opportunities for reduction. Global Food Security 2016; 8:19-26.
35 Affognon H, Mutungi C, Sanginga P, Borgemeister C. Unpacking postharvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis. World Development 2015; 66:49-68.
36 Abiad MG, Meho LI. Food loss and food waste research in the Arab world: a systematic review. Food Sec 2018; 10:311-322.
37 Lipinski B, Hanson C, Lomax J, Kitinoja L, Waite R, Searchinger T. Reducing Food Loss and Waste. Working Paper, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute; 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: http://www.worldresourcesreport.org » http://www.worldresourcesreport.org
38 Parfitt J, Barthel M, Macnaughton S. Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365(1554):3065-3081.
39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396 » https://doi.org/10.17226/25396
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41 Moraes NV, Lermen FH, Echeveste MES. A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. J Environ Manage 2021; 286:112268.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection 16 Sept 2024
Date of issue Oct 2024
Received 30 Mar 2023
Accepted 03 Oct 2023
Published 05 Oct 2023

About the authors

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3552-7729
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1110-8944
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5244-2703
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0029-0936
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9261-2597
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9690-575X
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1930-3282

Chief editors:

Figures | tables.

Figures (1)

Figure 1 PRISMA flow chart for article selection.

Chart 1 SPiDER.

Sample	Latin American coutries
Phenomenon of interest	Stage of food supply chain analyzed; factors influence the loss (economic, social, environmental); economic, social and environmental impacts
Design	Observational studies (cross-sectional studies or ecological studies), case reports, interventional studies.
Evaluation	Food waste and Food lost
Research Type	Qualitative method

Source: Authors.

Chart 2 The search strategies.

PubMed
“Food Supply”[Mesh] OR (“Food Supply”) OR (“food security”) OR (“food insecurity”) OR (“food supply chain”) AND “LATIN AMERICA”[Mesh] OR “LATIN AMERICA” OR “Argentina”[Mesh] OR “Argentina” OR “Bolivia”[Mesh] OR “Bolivia” OR “Brazil”[Mesh] OR “Brazil” OR “Chile”[Mesh] OR “Chile” OR “Colombia”[Mesh] OR “Colombia” OR “Costa Rica”[Mesh] OR “Costa Rica” OR “Cuba”[Mesh] OR “Cuba” OR “Dominican Republic”[Mesh] OR “Dominican Republic” OR “Ecuador”[Mesh] OR “Ecuador” OR “El Salvador”[Mesh] OR “El Salvador” OR “Guatemala”[Mesh] OR “Guatemala” OR “Haiti”[Mesh] OR “Haiti” OR “Honduras”[Mesh] OR “Honduras” OR “Mexico”[Mesh] OR “Mexico” OR “Nicaragua”[Mesh] OR “Nicaragua” OR “Panama”[Mesh] OR “Paraguay”[Mesh] OR “Paraguay” OR “Peru”[Mesh] OR “Peru” OR “Uruguay”[Mesh] OR “Uruguay” OR “Venezuela”[Mesh] OR “Venezuela” OR “Mercosur” OR “Caribbean Netherlands” OR “Caribbean Region”
EMBASE
#5 #1 AND #2 AND #4 195 #4 ‘food chain’/syn OR ‘food system’/syn OR ‘food security’/syn OR ‘food insecurity’/syn 33,464 #3 ‘food system’/exp 16 #2 ‘waste and waste related phenomena’/syn OR ‘waste’/syn OR ‘agricultural waste’/syn OR ‘food waste’/syn OR ‘fruit and vegetable waste’/syn OR ‘vegetable waste’/syn OR ‘waste management’/syn OR ‘waste prevention’/syn 507,561 #1 ‘south and central america’/syn OR ‘brazil’/syn OR ‘argentina’/syn OR ‘aruba’/syn OR ‘caribbean islands’/syn OR ‘bolivia’/syn OR ‘chile’/syn OR ‘colombia’/syn OR ‘ecuador’/syn OR ‘french guiana’/syn OR ‘guyana’/syn OR ‘netherlands antilles’/syn OR ‘paraguay’/syn OR ‘peru’/syn OR ‘suriname’/syn OR ‘uruguay’/syn OR ‘venezuela’/syn OR ‘central america’/syn OR ‘belize’/syn OR ‘caribbean’/syn OR ‘costa rica’/syn OR ‘el salvador’/syn OR ‘guatemala’/syn OR ‘honduras’/syn OR ‘nicaragua’/syn OR ‘panama’/syn
SCOPUS
( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “LATIN AMERICA” OR “Argentina” OR “Bolivia” OR “Brazil” OR “Chile” OR “Colombia” OR “Costa Rica” OR “Cuba” OR “Dominican Republic” OR “Ecuador” OR “el salvador” OR “Guatemala” OR “Haiti” OR “Honduras” OR “Mexico” OR “Nicaragua” OR “Panama” OR “Paraguay” OR “Peru” OR “Uruguay” OR “venezuela” OR “Caribbean Netherlands” OR “Caribbean Region” ) ) AND ( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( ‘food AND waste’ OR ‘garbage’ OR ‘food AND wastage’ OR ‘food AND waste AND quantification’ OR ‘food AND waste AND reporting’ OR ‘amounts AND of AND food AND waste’ OR ‘waste AND management’ OR ‘food AND wastefulness’ OR ‘waste AND prevention’ OR ‘food AND loss’ OR food AND losses’ OR ‘food AND loss’ OR ‘food AND losses AND food AND waste’ ) ) AND ( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( “Food Supply” OR “food security” OR “food insecurity” OR “food supply chain” ) )
Web of Science

AGRICOLA
Keyword Anywhere(food waste) OR food loss)) AND Keyword Anywhere(Latin america))
EBSCO AS primer
( ‘food waste’ or ‘garbage’ or ‘food wastage’ or ‘food waste quantification’ or ‘food waste reporting’ or ‘amounts of food waste’ or ‘waste management’ or ‘food wastefulness’ or ‘waste prevention’ or ‘food loss’ or food losses’ or ‘food loss’ or ‘food losses and food waste’ ) AND ( “Food Supply” OR “food security” OR “food insecurity” OR “food supply chain” ) AND ( “latin america” OR “argentina” OR “bolivia” OR “brazil” “chile” OR “colombia” OR “costa rica” OR “cuba” OR “dominican republic” OR “ecuad OR ” OR “el salvador” OR “guatemala” OR “haiti” OR “honduras” OR “mexico” OR “nicaragua” OR “panama” OR “paraguay” OR “peru” OR “uruguay” OR “venezuela” OR “mercosur” OR “caribbean netherlands” OR “caribbean region” )
CABI
(((“latin america”) OR (“argentina”) OR (“bolivia”) OR (“brazil”) OR ( “chile”) OR (“colombia”) OR (“costa rica”) OR (“Cuba”) OR (“dominican republic”) OR (“ecuador”) OR (“el salvador”) OR (“guatemala”) OR (“haiti”) OR (“honduras”) OR (“mexico”) OR (“nicaragua”) OR (“panama”) OR (“paraguay”) OR (“peru”) OR (“uruguay”) OR (“venezuela”) OR (“mercosur”) OR (“caribbean netherlands”) OR (“caribbean region”))) AND (((“Food Supply”) OR (“food security”) OR (“food insecurity”) OR (“food supply chain”))) AND ((‘food waste’) OR (garbage) OR (“food wastage”) OR (‘waste management’ ) OR (‘food wastefulness’ ) OR (‘waste prevention’) OR (‘food losses’) OR (‘food loss’ ))

Chart 3 Characteristics of included studies.

FLW	Author, year	Language	Study design	Study location	Stage of the FSC*	Food	Study Quality***
Food Loss	Mendonza , 2017 13 Methley AM, Campbell S, Chew-Graham C, McNally R, Cheraghi-Sohi S. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: a comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14:579.	English	Cross-sectional	Guatemala. Western highlands	Post-harvest handling and storage	Maize	1
	Quellhorst , 2020 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.	English	Cross-sectional	Haiti. Ouest, Centre, and lower Artibonite	Post-harvest handling and storage	Maize, beans	2
	Conte , 2020 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.	Portuguese	Cross-sectional	Brazil - Paraná	Harvest and postharvest	Soybean	2
	Arends-Kuenning , 2022 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.	English	Cross-sectional	Brazil - Paraná	Harvest and postharvest	Soybean	2
Food Waste	Jica, 2013 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.	English	Cross-sectional	Colombia - Bogotá	Distribution	Meals	3
	Santos , 2020 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.	English	Cross-sectional	Brazil - Bahia - Salvador	Distribution	Fruits and Vegetables	3
	Silva , 2021 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.	English	Cross-sectional	Brazil - Rio de Janeiro	Distribution	Food	3
Food Loss and Waste	Gustavsson , 2011 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.	English	Cross-sectional	Latin America	FSC	Cereals, roots and tubers; Pulses; Fruits and vegetables; meat; fish and seafood; milk	3
	Delgado , 2017 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. Delgado , 2021 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.	English	Cross-sectional	Ecuador, Peru, Honduras, Guatemala	FSC	Potato, beans, maize	3
	CEC, 2017 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.	English	Cross-sectional	Mexico	FSC	Food	3
	Chaboud, 2017 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. Chaboud and Moustier, 2021 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.	English	Case report	Colombia - Cali	FSC	Tomatoes	2
	Dal’Magro and Talamini, 2019 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.	English	Case report	Brazil - NI - NI**	FSC	Cereals, roots and tubers; Pulses; Fruits and vegetables; meat; fish and seafood; milk	2
	Velasco ,2019 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.	Spanish	Cross-sectional	Ecuador, Peru	FSC	Potato	2
	Bedoya-Perales and Dal Magro, 2021 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.	English	Cross-sectional	Peru	FSC	Fruits and vegetables, roots and tubers, fish and seafood	3

*FSC: Food supply chain, **NI: Not informed, ***Quality studies.

Chart 4 Food loss: results on each individual study of the scoping review.

Author, year	Data of food loss	Factors influence the food loss	Impacts, destiny and initiatives to reduce food loss
Mendonza , 2017 13 Methley AM, Campbell S, Chew-Graham C, McNally R, Cheraghi-Sohi S. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: a comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14:579.	Farmers (producers): FL was 6.6% a total production during storage. Farmers (purchaser): FL was 1.5% a total production during storage	Excessive humidity or mishandling of moisture in the grain, rodents, rot, grain and environmental moisture, fungal, birds and insects	: for animals and human consumption : drying, control of pest focusing on rodent, moth and weevil control mostly (pastilla - pill - of a phosphine or phosphamine salt)
Quellhorst , 2020 14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.	FL occurs during storage for 86.6% of farmers	Rodents, insects, moisture, birds and other animals, theft	: use of chemical control and natural products to manage pests
Conte , 2020 16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.	Average harvest loss of 1.05 bags (60 kilogram bags) per hectare	Time of experience with soybean cultivation in the region, topographically less favorable areas for production, outsourcing of harvesting Time of use of harvesting machines	: innovative technologies employed in harvesting machines, wider platforms, training workers to master the adjustments and maintenance
Arends-Kuenning , 2022 15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.	Harvesting and storage are the most important stage where loss happens Perceived amount of harvest loss: farmers who hire others (120 kg per hectare or 0.03 percent of total production) farmers who harvest by themselves (88 kg per hectare or 0.02 percent of total production)	Training of the combine operator Person responsible for the harvest: farmers harvested the land by themselves or asked others to do so Farmers’ education level Moisture level Land size	: to own and operate their own equipment, to provide resources for farmers to be able to harvest their own land by themselves, training for farmers to improve knowledge and skills, monitoring of the combine operators and better monitoring system when others harvest

Chart 5 Food loss: results on each individual study of the scoping review.

Author, year	Data of food waste	Factors influence the food waste	Impacts, destiny and initiatives to reduce food waste
Jica, 2013 17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.	Average of the production of solid waste: by small commercial producers is 1.36 Kg/establishment/day	NI*	separate recyclable waste, donation recyclable resources (cardboard, paper, and plastics), program for collecting recyclables, publicize the concept of 3R: reduce (resource consumption), reuse (what can be reused), and recycle (recycle what cannot be reused as raw material).
Santos , 2020 18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.	14.24% of all purchases was discarded weekly The highest of losses were bananas, papayas, tomatoes and peppers	Natural deterioration, lack of specific conservation, storage facilities and excessive customer handling. In the stands the recently arrived fruits and vegetables were placed on top of the ones that were already in place and lack of order in the replacement of old products contributed to increased losses. Conditions of the vehicles used to transport fruits and vegetables had inadequate hygiene and refrigeration. The reception and packaging practices were inadequate.	donation to organizations or economically vulnerable individuals (35%) or consumption by the sellers and their families (9%). packing products carefully, to cover/protect, watering the green leafy vegetables throughout the day, requesting only the necessary supply, keeping the workplace clean
Silva , 2021 19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.	The higher percentages of loss were fruits and vegetables, fishmonger, butchery, and bakery. The overall average loss rate reached 8.9% of gross revenue.	An operational breakdown External theft and internal theft Administrative errors	discounts on products reaching their expiry dates, having a loss prevention department, strict quality control for the reception of products, audits, minimum stock, efficient handling of products, staff training, preference for local suppliers, the use of processing and packaging technologies, inventory turnover between stores, raising awareness of customers regarding the handling of products, to send recyclable material to recycling institutions, donation food before the expiry date (food banks), production of biogas through anaerobic digestion, incineration with energy recovery, generation of new products (conversion of organic waste into fertilizer)

*NI: not informed.

Chart 6 Food loss and waste: results on each individual study of the scoping review.

Author, year	Data of food loss and waste	Factors influence the food loss and waste	Impacts, destiny and initiatives to reduce food loss and waste
Gustavsson , 2011 1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.	FL was 2220kg/per capita/per year in Latin America and occurs in the early and middle stages of the FSC. Estimated waste percentages: Cereals: 17% (FL); 14% (FW); Roots and tubers: 40% (FL); 7% (FW); Oilseeds and pulses: 17% (FL); 4%(FW); Fruits and vegetables: 50% (FL); 22% (FW); Meat: 11,4% (FL); 11% (FW); Fish and seafood: 19,7% (FL); 14% (FW); Milk:11,5% (FL); 12% (FW)	Financial, managerial and technical limitations in harvesting techniques, storage and cooling facilities in difficult climatic conditions, infrastructure, packaging and marketing systems	NI
Delgado , 2017 20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. Delgado , 2021 21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.	Loss fluctuates between 6 and 25% of total production and of the total produced value. Loss at the producer level (60 to 80%) of the total value chain loss; at the middleman (7%) and processor levels (19%).	Pests and diseases, lack of harvesting techniques, lack of training and experience in selecting the produce, post‐harvest activities, lack of storage facilities and efficient transport systems	Use of improved seeds
CEC, 2017 22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.	FLW was 28 million tonnes by year in Mexico: Pre-harvest: 9 million tonnes Post-harvest: 5 million tonnes Processing: 5 million tonnes Distribution: 5 million tonnes FLW is 249 kilograms/person/year in Mexico: Pre-harvest: 83 kilograms Post-harvest: 44 kilograms Processing: 45 kilograms Distribution: 40 kilograms	Overproduction by processors, wholesalers and retailers, product damage, lack of cold-chain infrastructure (refrigeration during transportation and storage), rigid food-grading specifications, varying customer demand, market fluctuations	Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Landfilled FLW: 49 million tonnes CO2; Fertilizer Use: 0.63 million tonnes; Water use 2.7 billion m3; Wasted Cropland: 4.4 million ha; Energy Use: 3.4 1018 Joules reducing portion sizes, increasing marketability, standardizing date labels, packaging adjustments, improving cold-chain management, financial incentives for food donation, online food rescue platforms, feeding animals
Chaboud, 2017 23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017. Chaboud and Moustier, 2021 24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.	FLW are higher at farm stage: farmers (58%), traders (22%) and retailers (25%). The average rate of FLW was 0.5% per trader and 1.7% per retailer. Producers: 10% report a FLW of at least 32.1% while 5% lose more than 55.6% of the tomatoes harvested. Retailers: 5% declare that they throw away at least 10% of tomatoes purchased, while 81% of the respondents throw away less than 2%.	Diseases and pests	: own consumption and donation pest and disease control at pre- and post-harvest stages
Dal’Magro and Talamini, 2019 25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.	Agricultural production (AP) (26.26%) and processing and packaging (PP) (24.67%): of fruits and vegetables, roots and tubers and cereals. In the 2007 the FLW was 77.7 million tons: AP (20.4 million) and PP (19.2 million). Between 2007 and 2013 was 82.1 million tons per year: AP (21.1 million) and PP (19.8 million). Distribution and consumption: larger quantities of fruits and vegetables, cereals and milk.	NI	donation for food banks, modernization of the supply centers, research related to pest management, agroindustrialization and food processing, post-harvest practices, packaging, logistics and waste disposal, public purchases of food from family farming
Velasco ,2019 26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.	Producers reported losses in Peru (82.5%) and in Ecuador (85.0%). In Peru the FL was: before the harvest (71.98%), left in the field (34.81%), during the harvest (50.74%), during selection (14.45%), during storage (10.62%). In Ecuador the FL was: before the harvest (71.59%), left in the field (19.45%), during the harvest (61.86%), during selection (16.34%), during storage (3.11%). In Peru, FLW differences depending on the size of the farm.	In Peru: climatic factors, with a lack of rain and frostspoor quality, mechanical damage and moth, insects. In Ecuador: climate, insects and poor seed quality, mechanical damage, excessive humidity (storage), attack of moths.	NI
Bedoya-Perales and Dal Magro, 2021 27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.	12.8 million tonnes of FLW per year: mostly was during the pre-consumption steps (10.8 million tonnes per year). During the period 2007-2017, in Peru was 3.3 million tonnes in agricultural production, 2.3 million tonnes in post-harvest handling and storage, 3.5 million tonnes in processing and packaging, 1.7 million tonnes in distribution. The group of fruits and vegetables, with roots and tubers, contributed 65.13% of the total FLW flow. The groups of cereals and fish totaled 28.07%, and the group of pulses, meat, and milk represented 6.8% of FLW.	Unfavorable climatic conditions, pests, diseases, lack of cold chain logistics, bad harvest technique and lack of labor, the market inconsistency	o innovation in short food supply chains and short marketing circuits, valorization of food manufacturing waste, intelligent food logistics and supply chain planning, marketing infrastructure for farmers

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Free Text Summarizer

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Academic research

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Difficult text

Why use this summarizer?

How to use this summarizer

2 ways of summarizing your text

2. Concise paragraphs

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Frequently asked questions

How To Write A Research Summary

What is a Research Summary?

Research summary or Abstract. What’s the Difference?

Getting Started with a Research Summary

How to Structure Your Research Summary

Introduction

Methodology

Tips for Writing a Research Summary

1. Read the parent paper thoroughly

2. Identify the key elements in different sections

Discussion/Conclusion

3. Prepare the first draft

4. Include visuals

5. Double check for plagiarism

6. Religiously follow the word count limit

7. Proofread your research summary multiple times

8. Watch while you write

9. Ask a friend/colleague to help

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Why the research was done

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What conclusions the author drew

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