examples of ethnomethodology experiments

Ethnomethodology Theory: Definition & Examples

Ayesh Perera

B.A, MTS, Harvard University

Ayesh Perera, a Harvard graduate, has worked as a researcher in psychology and neuroscience under Dr. Kevin Majeres at Harvard Medical School.

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Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Ethnomethodology theory is a sociological approach that seeks to understand the social order and rules that structure everyday life through analyzing the common sense methods people use to make sense of and function in their daily lives. Rather than studying what “should” happen, it examines how people construct social reality and the tacit procedures they follow to create and interpret meaning in social interactions.

Key Takeaways

• Originally developed by Harold Garfinkel, ethnomethodology is a sociological approach that studies how the process of social interactions produces social order (Garfinkel, 1974).
• In order to analyze how individuals account for their conduct, ethnomethodologists may intentionally unsettle communal norms to evaluate how such individuals respond and strive to restore order to the community (Crossman, 2020).
• Ethnomethodology examines resources, practices and procedures via which a society’s members interpret their daily lives, and the mutual recognition of which within certain contexts engenders orderliness (Nickerson, 2021)(Williams, 2001).

The ethnomethodological approach focuses on the capacities of people as members of a collective rather than their individuating traits as distinct persons. It is primarily not a theory seeking to analyze social life (Nickerson, 2021).

On the contrary, ethnomethodology frames inquiries and observations into communal interactions, underscoring various individuals’ understanding of their worlds, rather than any theoretical frameworks utilized by social scientists.

Furthermore, according to ethnomethodology human interactions are enabled by, and occur within a consensus which comprises various norms for conduct (Crossman, 2020). These values accompany the members of a society and facilitate its cohesion.

Ethnomethodology assumes that those norms are both uniform and shared, and that violations thereof can unveil for analysis dynamics of a community as well as the manner of its members’ reactions to such transgressions.

Additionally, ethnomethodologists hold that their particular discipline strives to unveil a society’s behavioral norms which its members may otherwise remain unconscious of, and incapable of articulating.

A simple conversation among acquaintances can be construed as a social interaction governed by certain implicit standards of decorum (Crossman, 2020). The partakers in the discussion may nod their heads to communicate agreement, look at each other, and raise and answer questions.

An ethnomethodologist may strive to uncover the norms ruling this interaction by disrupting the conversation [e.g., interrupting the speaker]. Such an intrusion would likely breakdown the previous interaction and replace it with another social situation.

Another example stems of a well-known set of ethnomethodological experiments (Crossman, 2020). Herein, college students were directed to act like guests in their homes without informing their families that this dissimulation was part of an experiment.

The students were to be impersonal and polite. They would employ terms of formal address and talk only after being talked to. Following the experiment, the students reported that the reactions of their families had ranged from humor and bewilderment to shock and anger.

Meanwhile, the students themselves had been accused of being mean, inconsiderate and impolite. However, the students were able to see via the experiment how even informal norms, such as those governing homes, could remain structured, and if broken, could become evident.

Pros and Cons

Ethnomethodology functions as an effective descriptive tool at a micro level. It can unveil group dynamics and communal norms which exert a potent influence on society while simultaneously escaping notice.

In fact, when individuals encounter difficulty in identifying the very communal norms they themselves live by, the unconventional approach of departing from decorum, inspired by ethnomethodology, can be immensely enlightening (Crossman, 2020).

However, at the same time, ethnomethodology is not a sound explanatory tool capable of accounting for phenomena at a macro level. It avoids normative judgments and has been criticized for wanting a tenable epistemological foundation (Lynch, 2001).

Further Information

What is Ethnomethodology?

Attewell, P. (1974). Ethnomethodology since Garfinkel. Theory and society, 1(2), 179-210.

Heritage, J. (1987). Ethnomethodology. Social theory today, 224-272.

Linstead, S. (2006). Ethnomethodology and sociology: an introduction. The Sociological Review, 54(3), 399-404.

Crossman, Ashley. (2020). Using Ethnomethodology to Understand Social Order. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-ethnomethodology-3026553

Garfinkel, H. (1967). Ethnomethodology . Englewood Cliffs.

Garfinkel, H. (1974) “The origins of the term ethnomethodology”, in R.Turner (Ed.) Ethnomethodology, Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp 15–18.

Lynch, M. (2001). Science and Technology Studies: Ethnomethodology. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 13644-13647). Oxford: Pergamon.

Nickerson, C. (2021). Using Ethnomethodology to Understand Social Order. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-ethnomethodology.html

Williams, J. (2001). Phenomenology in Sociology. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 11361-11363). Oxford: Pergamon.

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Social Mettle

A List of Quirky Ideas for Social Norm Breaching Experiments

Suppose there is a game in which you are not allowed to say 'yes' or 'no', and have to answer only with another question. Using up the entire range of 'wh-questions', you can think of how entertaining this game can get. Social norm breaching is nothing different than this.

Suppose there is a game in which you are not allowed to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’, and have to answer only with another question. Using up the entire range of ‘wh-questions’, you can think of how entertaining this game can get. Social norm breaching is nothing different than this.

No Suggestions Implied! While a Superman costume flaunting an underwear is taken well, someone wearing undergarments over normal clothes (that too at a fancy dress party) becomes an act of breach! Unfair, isn’t it!

Eating with your hands while dining at a fancy restaurant, wearing your bathrobe to college one day, sending a reply via email when someone had called you on your cell phone, or talking to a stranger by getting very close to him/her, and such similar deeds are ones that a normal human being would usually avoid doing.

If you have tried any of these, you can be called a researcher who was engaged in studying social norm breaching experiments. Such kind acts of nonsense, which you may call bizarre, are not solely meant for entertainment purposes. This testing of socially accepted rules are mainly a part of the fields of sociology and social psychology. Yes, academics can get very interesting at times!

What are Breaching Experiments in Sociology?

Breaching experiments try to study the reactions of people when a social norm is broken or violated.

There are some unwritten rules that all of us follow in our day-to-day conduct. How one would (rather should) behave in a given situation is predefined and based on a lot of assumptions. These experiments try to break these ‘taken for granted’ social norms. Reactions of others to such tricks are also fun to look at. This concept is associated with the ethnomethodology theory of sociology , put forth by Harold Garfinkel.

An unexpected behavior or comment leaves the respondent completely puzzled, making the experiment successful. The approach behind such experiments highlights that, people continue to make a number of such rules everyday, and do not even realize it.

Experiment Ideas

Clearly, a breaching experiment is like asking for trouble. When the action is troublesome, it makes it visible that practices leading to social stability are so much ingrained into our minds. Breaching of norms has to be a deliberate act though; it is not an issue of conflicting opinions leading to disobedience of a given norm. You can try troubling others with the following ideas.

– To a casual question like ‘what’s up?’, you can say ‘the sky’. ‘How’s it going?’ can be replied to in an exhilarating manner, like ‘I didn’t see any ‘it’ going’. When people are not really interested in knowing about you, and they still ask those questions, you may actually stop them and really explain to them some random event going on in your life. (Be very sure about who you want to experiment with this though!)

– Some tests that college students were asked to take, involved behaving like a stranger or renter in one’s home. Talking only when asked about something, or being very polite, are some things their parents reacted to quite strongly.

– In the tic-tac-toe game, ask a person to play first. When he/she places an ‘X’ in a square, you place an ‘O’ on a line forming the matrix, and not in any square space. That person might get confused, or would exclaim, “Have you gone crazy?” Behaving according to the established practices of following given rules is so important here, even if it is a game. This exemplifies an established social order.

– At a decently crowded public place, get one of your friends to stand opposite you. You act like both of you are talking about something important. Then, act as if the both of you are holding a very thin and delicate cotton string in your fingertips, each one of you holding one end of it. Now, start to move away, very slowly, so that people feel that you are holding something very precious. Shout out words like, ‘easy’, ‘be careful’, or ‘watch out’. You may find a few people actually believing you and ducking while they pass through. Someone might even go around you, so as to not break that string. You would notice, it is very easy to create social norms.

Experiment Examples

Here are some examples of interpersonal conversations, mentioned in ethnomethodology literature as case studies of experimentation given by Garfinkel. These have been sourced from books like ‘Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology’ by John Heritage, and ‘Sociology in Perspective’ by Mark Kirby.

– The subject was telling the experimenter―a member of the subject’s car pool―about having had a flat tire while going to work the previous day.

S : I had a flat tire. E : What do you mean, you had a flat tire? She appeared momentarily stunned. Then she answered in a hostile way: ‘What do you mean? What do you mean? A flat tire is a flat tire. That is what I a meant. Nothing special. What a crazy question!’

– By asking ‘What do you mean?’, as a response to every statement, students were asked to continue the conversation.

S : Hi, Ray. How is your girlfriend feeling? E : What do you mean ‘How is she feeling?’. Do you mean physically or mentally? S : I mean how is she feeling? What’s the matter with you? (He looked peeved.) E : Nothing. Just explain a little clearer as to what you mean. S : Skip it. How are your Med School applications coming? E : What do you mean ‘How are they going?’ S : You know what I mean. E : I really don’t. S : What’s the matter with you? Are you sick?

– On Friday night, my husband and I were watching television. He remarked that he was tired. I asked, ‘How are you tired? Physically, mentally, or just bored?’

S : I don’t know, I guess physically, mainly. E : You mean that your muscles ache, or your bones? S : I guess so. Don’t be so technical. (After more watching) S : All these old movies have the same kind of old iron bedstead in them. E : What do you mean? Do you mean all old movies, or some of them, or just the ones you have seen? S : What’s the matter with you? You know what I mean. E : I wish you would be more specific. S : You know what I mean! Drop dead!

– The victim waived his hand cheerily.

S : How are you? E : How am I in regard to what? My health, my finance, my school work, my peace of mind, my … S : (Red in the face and suddenly out of control.) Look! I was just trying to be polite! Frankly, I don’t give a damn how you are.

The results from these cases proved that the experimenters could successfully break the norms. It was possible because of the fact that, any given conversation (or communication) takes place smoothly, ‘assuming the background knowledge’, which helps two people make sense of what the other means.

Well, if you’ve got the point now, you can be real ‘innovative and original’ with this act of breaching. Oh, but just be sure that you don’t mess with the wrong people at the wrong time.

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12.3 Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis

Learning objectives.

• Define ethnomethodology and describe its purpose.
• Define and describe conversation analysis .

Though not unique methods of data collection per se, ethnomethodology and conversation analysis are unique enough, and prominent enough in sociology, that they warrant some dedicated attention in this text. Ethnomethodology The study of how people construct and sustain their realities through conversation and gestures. refers to the study of everyday reality. Rather than assume that the purpose of social science is to understand some objective reality, ethnomethodologists investigate how people construct, prolong, and maintain their realities. The term ethnomethodology was coined by sociologist Harold Garfinkel (1967), Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. who, as described in his 2011 obituary, was a “sociologist who delved into the minutiae of everyday life” (Lynch, 2011). Lynch, M. (2011, July 13). Harold Garfinkel obituary. The Guardian . Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2011/jul/13/harold-garfinkel-obituary Ethnomethodology’s emphasis on the everyday, and on ordinary people’s methods for producing order in their social worlds, is perhaps its most distinctive characteristic.

An example of ethnomethodological research is C. M. Scharff’s (2008) Scharff, C. M. (2008). Doing class: A discursive and ethnomethodological approach. Critical Discourse Studies, 5, 331–343. study of how young feminist women “do” social class. In her study, Scharff examines data from interviews with 40 German and British young women to understand how they “think, talk, and feel about feminism” (p. 334). By focusing in on language, talk, and interaction, Scharff argues that her account is ethnomethodological in nature. Kevin Whitehead (2009) Whitehead, K. (2009). “Categorizing the categorizer”: The management of racial common sense in interaction. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72, 325–342. also takes an ethnomethodological approach in his study of the social organization of race. In Whitehead’s words, he considers “one mechanism by which racial categories, racial ‘common sense,’ and thus the social organization of race itself, are reproduced in interaction” (p. 325). Whitehead, K. (2009). “Categorizing the categorizer”: The management of racial common sense in interaction. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72, 325–342. To study these processes, Whitehead analyzed the interactions and practices of participants in an employment “race training” workshop and found that individuals use race as a framework from which to understand their own and others’ actions, thereby reproducing race as a relevant social category.

Conversation analysis The study of talk, including how talk progresses, how it is facilitated, and how it may be impeded. grew out of ethnomethodology (Schutt, 2006) Schutt, R. K. (2006). Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. and thus shares its focus on the construction of reality as opposed to the discovery of reality. Conversation analysts focus specifically on talk in interaction: how talk progresses, how it is facilitated or impeded, how turns are taken in talk, and how these processes both shape and are shaped by social context. In conversation analysis, what people say is just as important as how they say it. Also important are the pauses people take in expressing themselves and how or whether they interrupt themselves or others while talking. Conversation analysts might study recordings of court proceedings or legislative debates to learn about the social construction of law and punishment. They might also study more simple interactions, such as a conversation between two people meeting for coffee.

Some research methods texts include coverage of ethnomethodology and conversation analysis in their presentations of qualitative data analysis (Schutt, 2006). Schutt, R. K. (2006). Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. It makes sense to do so; both represent unique approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Yet they also rest upon particular ontological and epistemological assumptions that set them apart, in some ways at least, from more traditional mechanisms of analysis such as coding.

Key Takeaways

• Ethnomethodologists study everyday reality and how people produce those realities through their presentations of self and interactions with others.
• Conversation analysts focus specifically on the dynamics of talk.
• Professor Dhiraj Murthy requires his Introduction to Sociology students to conduct an ethnomethodology exercise to help them understand the sociological, and very social, aspects of “everyday activities.” To understand how these activities are social, Murthy asks students to engage in some activity that interrupts the “natural facts of life” (Garfinkel’s words). Read about their experiences here: http://learn.bowdoin.edu/sociology/soc101/?p=68 . What do these students’ reports tell us about how “everyday activities” are also social activities?

Ethnomethodology

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Conversational analysis

Harold Garfinkel understands the ethnomethodological interest as focused on the moral order of society as an everyday “technical accomplishment.” Given this interest in moral concerns as societal members’ concerns, Garfinkel’s program claims indifference to the content of these concerns and concern only for the process by which societal membership allows social actors to accomplish sense making and maintain normality and familiarity in their customary fields of action. For Garfinkel this means studying everyday practices and everyday sense making in any and all activities, jury deliberations, counseling sessions, games of tic-tac-toe, and scientific coding, to name a few. Whether the ethnomethodologist studies the practices of divination or of physics, the contention is that all human activities can be analyzed in terms of the methods that societal members or “folk” use to constitute their sense (p. 32). Garfinkel ( 1967 ) sees this concern as...

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Atkinson, P. (1988). Ethnomethodology: A critical review. Annual Review of Sociology, 14 , 441–465. Annual Reviews.

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Garfinkel, H., & Rawls, A. W. (2002). Ethnomethodology’s program: Working out Durkheim’s aphorism. In A. W. Rawls (Ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, Inc.

Heritage, J. (1984). Garfinkel and ethnomethodology . Cambridge: Polity Press.

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Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis by Michael E. Lynch LAST REVIEWED: 27 February 2019 LAST MODIFIED: 27 February 2019 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0216

Ethnomethodology (literally people’s methodology) is the study of practices through which members of a society collectively organize and sustain their activities. As the term suggests, ethnomethodology treats methodology as a widespread social phenomenon in addition to being a specialized set of practices in a science or other professional undertaking. Consequently, for ethnomethodology, the development and practical use of methods is a topic of sociological investigation rather than an exclusive disciplinary resource. Harold Garfinkel (b. 1917–d. 2011) coined the term “ethnomethodology” and founded the field that goes by that name. He studied under Talcott Parsons (b. 1902–d. 1979), but radically transformed the structural-functionalist theory of action that Parsons developed in the 1930s and 1940s. Garfinkel’s distinctive empirical approach to social action and interaction drew upon Edmund Husserl’s (b. 1859–d. 1938) phenomenological analysis of the everyday life-world, which Alfred Schutz (b. 1899–d. 1959) developed for sociology. Garfinkel gave relatively little mention of the philosophy of ordinary language arising from the later philosophical work of Ludwig Wittgenstein (b. 1889–d. 1951), and developed in reference to the social sciences by Peter Winch (b. 1926–d. 1997), but others have drawn linkages between them. Ethnomethodological research describes the organization of situated activities, including commonsense reasoning and ordinary language use, as well as more specialized practices of playing music, solving mathematics problems, or performing scientific experiments. Although ethnomethodology initially developed as part of sociology, and is still recognized as a sociological subfield, it has made inroads into philosophy of social science, social anthropology, communication and information studies, education studies, and science and technology studies. The allied field of Conversation Analysis, founded by Harvey Sacks (1935–1975) and developed by his students and colleagues, has also made strong inroads into sociolinguistics and related areas of research on social interaction.

Garfinkel 1967 is the founding text and most significant position statement for ethnomethodology. Garfinkel 2002 presents more recently developed studies and conceptual themes. For intellectual biographies of Garfinkel and overviews of his contributions see Rawls 2000 and vom Lehn 2014 . For summary accounts on various approaches to ethnomethodology, see Benson and Hughes 1983 , Heritage 1984 , Sharrock and Anderson 2011 , and Maynard and Clayman 1991 . For a critical review and comparison of ethnomethodology, conversation analysis (CA), and constructivist studies, see Lynch 1993 . For exemplary studies, see Livingston 1987 and Liberman 2013 .

Benson, Douglas, and John Hughes. 1983. The perspective of ethnomethodology . London: Longman.

An early introduction and overview that was especially important for establishing interest in ethnomethodology in the United Kingdom at a time when some of the leading British sociologists had denounced the field.

Garfinkel, Harold. 1967. Studies in ethnomethodology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

The definitive introduction to ethnomethodology. Early chapters outline the approach and its key conceptual treatment of language, action, and the production of social order, followed by chapters that focus on the “achievement” of gender identity, the organizational production of bureaucratic records, and other significant phenomena.

Garfinkel, Harold. 2002. Ethnomethodology’s program: Working out Durkheim’s aphorism . Edited by Anne Rawls. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

A collection of studies, most of which were written after Garfinkel initiated the “studies of work” program, presents more recently developed conceptual themes and exemplary studies of “instructed actions” in specialized and everyday activities. The editor’s introduction by Rawls (pp. 1–64) provides biographical details and reflections on Garfinkel’s legacy.

Heritage, John. 1984. Garfinkel and ethnomethodology . Cambridge, MA: Polity Press.

A widely cited secondary source on ethnomethodology. Heritage clearly presents how Garfinkel’s approach to social action differs from previous sociological theories of action.

Liberman, Kenneth. 2013. More studies in ethnomethodology . Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Based in part on the author’s notes taken while attending Garfinkel’s seminars, and includes studies and exercises derived from those that Garfinkel developed. Includes a forward by Harold Garfinkel (p. ix).

Livingston, Eric. 1987. Making Sense of Ethnomethodology . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

A clearly written and faithful summary of Garfinkel’s key ideas, with exemplary exercises and examples.

Lynch, Michael. 1993. Scientific practice and ordinary action: Ethnomethodology and social studies of science . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

A critical review of philosophical and social-theoretic treatments of scientific practice in relation to ordinary activities and commonsense reasoning. The book also discusses the distinctive empirical treatments of social action and interaction in ethnomethodology and CA.

Maynard, Douglas, and Steven Clayman. 1991. The diversity of ethnomethodology. Annual Review of Sociology 17:385–418.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.so.17.080191.002125

A review article that gives a comprehensive account of the main lines of research in ethnomethodology and conversation analysis.

Rawls, Anne. 2000. Harold Garfinkel. In The Blackwell companion to major social theorists . Edited by George Ritzer. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

An intellectual biography of Garfinkel that ties together different phases of his education and wartime experiences with ideas and methodological strategies developed during his lengthy academic career. See also Rawls’ editor’s introduction to Garfinkel 2002 .

Sharrock, Wes, and Bob Anderson. 2011. The ethnomethodologists . Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Although this book is a brief and readable introduction to ethnomethodology, it provides a well-informed and sophisticated grasp of the ideas and implications of the field. Originally published in 1986.

Vom Lehn, Dirk. 2014. Harold Garfinkel . Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

A short, readable intellectual biography that presents an overview of Garfinkel’s contributions to social theory and social science research.

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The Definition and Function of Ethnomethodology

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Ethnomethodology is the study of how people use social interaction to maintain an ongoing sense of reality in a situation. To gather data, ethnomethodologists rely on ​ conversation analysis and a rigorous set of techniques for systematically observing and recording what happens when people interact in natural settings. It is an attempt to classify the actions people take when they are acting in groups. 

Origins of Ethnomethodology

Harold Garfinkel originally came up with the idea for ethnomethodology at jury duty. He wanted to explain how the people organized themselves into a jury. He was interested in how people act in particular social situations, especially ones outside of the daily norm like serving as a juror. 

Examples of Ethnomethodology

A conversation is a social process that requires certain things in order for participants to identify it as a conversation and keep it going. People look at each other, nod their heads in agreement, ask and respond to questions, etc. If these methods are not used correctly, the conversation breaks down and is replaced by another sort of social situation.

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Science Struck

A Simple Explanation of the Ethnomethodology Theory of Sociology

Ethnomethodology, in simple words, is about the methods people employ to make sense of the everyday world. Something like a casual question asking your friend about how his/her weekend was could turn into an ethnomethodological case study. ScienceStruck explains how.

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Social Norms

Norms are the accepted rules of behavior within a group or society. They are also called mores.

Ethnomethodology sounds like a very difficult and ‘heavy-to-digest’ term, at first. I won’t say that it is one of the easiest ones around, but it isn’t rocket science either if we get down to understanding it. Let’s consider an activity: write down all the actions (in a stepwise manner) that you would do if you were to get into your car (in the garage) and start driving. Quite easy a task, you may exclaim. Sure! Now, write down, again in a stepwise manner, your thought-process and actions when you say, “I am hungry”. … Confused? That’s quite expected.

What this field of sociology studies can span across anything and everything happening in our daily lives. The word ‘ethno’ refers to a specific sociocultural group or community; need not be an ethnicity per se. ‘Methods’ concern the patterns that are typically identified mostly in the interactions taking place within such groups or communities. So, let us take a look at what this complex term actually means.

Ethnomethodology Theory in Sociology

Definition and Meaning

Ethnomethodology is referred to as a perspective that centers upon the ‘ways and methods’ we employ to make sense of our surrounding world. It is also described to literally mean studies of ‘peoples’ methods’.

Studying how people gather the features of everyday life in actuality (not hypothetically) through concerted efforts is the mainstay of this discipline. A consensus over the prevalent norms existing in a society is an important assumption for a successful social interaction. If a community does not accord to this given set of standards, interactions would not be sustained, bringing any social activity to a halt. Thus, ethnomethodology strives to prove that there is immense background knowledge that is used by people in daily life, which sustains social processes.

Harold Garfinkel is believed to have coined this term in 1954 at an American Sociological Association meeting. It was curiosity in his mind that led him to undertake research about this topic. An analysis of the jury discussion of a Chicago case in the year 1945 made him wonder about the ‘way those jurors knew how to act as jurors’. He also discovered after his research in ethnomethodology, that the methods used by people to understand their society are rooted in their natural attitudes.

Indexicality is another significant concept in this area of sociological study. Indexicality, as a term in philosophy of language, and also with reference to ethnomethodology, means an (indexical) expression whose meaning changes from context to context. Any question asked can be responded by asking, “What do you mean?”. This reference to a particular context lends the expected meaning to a word.

There are independent social orders existing within the routine concrete activities, and they are not externally dependent. For example, these activities are not always coming from popular social institutions. This orderliness inherent in the actions of people stems from the interpretation they make of any signs, remarks, or actions. Also, phenomenology is considered to be the basis of ethnomethodology. The attempt to describe everyday experiences without any metaphysical speculations is thus, sourced from here.

Real-life Examples of Ethnomethodology

A simple conversation can be an example of a process, which needs observation of certain commonly established ways for it to function in order. These ways may involve different gestures like eye contact, nodding of the head, or any such acts of responding to each other, which keeps the conversation alive.

If you ask a colleague out for a drink, you do that assuming a lot of things. No, it’s not an assumption about what you want (or don’t want) to convey, or about the drinking habits of your colleague. In fact, very petite things like he/she understanding the question you really wanted to ask, as a casual or polite way of social interaction, are the obvious ‘methods’ or realities that are taken for granted. We assume that if I have asked something, the other person would respond, either with a ‘Yes’ or a ‘No. What if he/she asks you a very random question instead, or does not respond at all? If that happens, it might bring the dialog to an abrupt end. This is why ethnomethodology is also studied through social norm-breaking experiments. It investigates such routine situations, by ‘breaking the social rules’ which we never usually doubt or think over.

A striking feature of this subject is that, despite being a sociological discipline, it does not attempt to evaluate or judge any kind of socially accepted realities or social ways. It is a descriptive discipline that examines the methods used by people in day-to-day situations.

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Experimental vs Observational Studies: Differences & Examples

Understanding the differences between experimental vs observational studies is crucial for interpreting findings and drawing valid conclusions. Both methodologies are used extensively in various fields, including medicine, social sciences, and environmental studies. 

Researchers often use observational and experimental studies to gather comprehensive data and draw robust conclusions about their investigating phenomena. 

This blog post will explore what makes these two types of studies unique, their fundamental differences, and examples to illustrate their applications.

What is an Experimental Study?

An experimental study is a research design in which the investigator actively manipulates one or more variables to observe their effect on another variable. This type of study often takes place in a controlled environment, which allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Key Characteristics of Experimental Studies:

• Manipulation: Researchers manipulate the independent variable(s).
• Control: Other variables are kept constant to isolate the effect of the independent variable.
• Randomization: Subjects are randomly assigned to different groups to minimize bias.
• Replication: The study can be replicated to verify results.

Types of Experimental Study

• Laboratory Experiments: Conducted in a controlled environment where variables can be precisely controlled.
• Field Research : These are conducted in a natural setting but still involve manipulation and control of variables.
• Clinical Trials: Used in medical research and the healthcare industry to test the efficacy of new treatments or drugs.

Example of an Experimental Study:

Imagine a study to test the effectiveness of a new drug for reducing blood pressure. Researchers would:

• Randomly assign participants to two groups: receiving the drug and receiving a placebo.
• Ensure that participants do not know their group (double-blind procedure).
• Measure blood pressure before and after the intervention.
• Compare the changes in blood pressure between the two groups to determine the drug’s effectiveness.

What is an Observational Study?

An observational study is a research design in which the investigator observes subjects and measures variables without intervening or manipulating the study environment. This type of study is often used when manipulating impractical or unethical variables.

Key Characteristics of Observational Studies:

• No Manipulation: Researchers do not manipulate the independent variable.
• Natural Setting: Observations are made in a natural environment.
• Causation Limitations: It is difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships due to the need for more control over variables.
• Descriptive: Often used to describe characteristics or outcomes.

Types of Observational Studies: 

• Cohort Studies : Follow a control group of people over time to observe the development of outcomes.
• Case-Control Studies: Compare individuals with a specific outcome (cases) to those without (controls) to identify factors that might contribute to the outcome.
• Cross-Sectional Studies : Collect data from a population at a single point to analyze the prevalence of an outcome or characteristic.

Example of an Observational Study:

Consider a study examining the relationship between smoking and lung cancer. Researchers would:

• Identify a cohort of smokers and non-smokers.
• Follow both groups over time to record incidences of lung cancer.
• Analyze the data to observe any differences in cancer rates between smokers and non-smokers.

Difference Between Experimental vs Observational Studies

Choosing Between Experimental and Observational Studies

The researchers relied on statistical analysis to interpret the results of randomized controlled trials, building upon the foundations established by prior research.

Use Experimental Studies When:

• Causality is Important: If determining a cause-and-effect relationship is crucial, experimental studies are the way to go.
• Variables Can Be Controlled: When you can manipulate and control the variables in a lab or controlled setting, experimental studies are suitable.
• Randomization is Possible: When random assignment of subjects is feasible and ethical, experimental designs are appropriate.

Use Observational Studies When:

• Ethical Concerns Exist: If manipulating variables is unethical, such as exposing individuals to harmful substances, observational studies are necessary.
• Practical Constraints Apply: When experimental studies are impractical due to cost or logistics, observational studies can be a viable alternative.
• Natural Settings Are Required: If studying phenomena in their natural environment is essential, observational studies are the right choice.

Strengths and Limitations

Experimental studies.

• Establish Causality: Experimental studies can establish causal relationships between variables by controlling and using randomization.
• Control Over Confounding Variables: The controlled environment allows researchers to minimize the influence of external variables that might skew results.
• Repeatability: Experiments can often be repeated to verify results and ensure consistency.

Limitations:

• Ethical Concerns: Manipulating variables may be unethical in certain situations, such as exposing individuals to harmful conditions.
• Artificial Environment: The controlled setting may not reflect real-world conditions, potentially affecting the generalizability of results.
• Cost and Complexity: Experimental studies can be costly and logistically complex, especially with large sample sizes.

Observational Studies

• Real-World Insights: Observational studies provide valuable insights into how variables interact in natural settings.
• Ethical and Practical: These studies avoid ethical concerns associated with manipulation and can be more practical regarding cost and time.
• Diverse Applications: Observational studies can be used in various fields and situations where experiments are not feasible.
• Lack of Causality: It’s easier to establish causation with manipulation, and results are limited to identifying correlations.
• Potential for Confounding: Uncontrolled external variables may influence the results, leading to biased conclusions.
• Observer Bias: Researchers may unintentionally influence outcomes through their expectations or interpretations of data.

Examples in Various Fields

• Experimental Study: Clinical trials testing the effectiveness of a new drug against a placebo to determine its impact on patient recovery.
• Observational Study: Studying the dietary habits of different populations to identify potential links between nutrition and disease prevalence.
• Experimental Study: Conducting a lab experiment to test the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance by controlling sleep hours and measuring test scores.
• Observational Study: Observing social interactions in a public setting to explore natural communication patterns without intervention.

Environmental Science

• Experimental Study: Testing the impact of a specific pollutant on plant growth in a controlled greenhouse setting.
• Observational Study: Monitoring wildlife populations in a natural habitat to assess the effects of climate change on species distribution.

How QuestionPro Research Can Help in Experimental vs Observational Studies

Choosing between experimental and observational studies is a critical decision that can significantly impact the outcomes and interpretations of a study. QuestionPro Research offers powerful tools and features that can enhance both types of studies, giving researchers the flexibility and capability to gather, analyze, and interpret data effectively.

Enhancing Experimental Studies with QuestionPro

Experimental studies require a high degree of control over variables, randomization, and, often, repeated trials to establish causal relationships. QuestionPro excels in facilitating these requirements through several key features:

• Survey Design and Distribution: With QuestionPro, researchers can design intricate surveys tailored to their experimental needs. The platform supports random assignment of participants to different groups, ensuring unbiased distribution and enhancing the study’s validity.
• Data Collection and Management: Real-time data collection and management tools allow researchers to monitor responses as they come in. This is crucial for experimental studies where data collection timing and sequence can impact the results.
• Advanced Analytics: QuestionPro offers robust analytical tools that can handle complex data sets, enabling researchers to conduct in-depth statistical analyses to determine the effects of the experimental interventions.

Supporting Observational Studies with QuestionPro

Observational studies involve gathering data without manipulating variables, focusing on natural settings and real-world scenarios. QuestionPro’s capabilities are well-suited for these studies as well:

• Customizable Surveys: Researchers can create detailed surveys to capture a wide range of observational data. QuestionPro’s customizable templates and question types allow for flexibility in capturing nuanced information.
• Mobile Data Collection: For field research, QuestionPro’s mobile app enables data collection on the go, making it easier to conduct studies in diverse settings without internet connectivity.
• Longitudinal Data Tracking: Observational studies often require data collection over extended periods. QuestionPro’s platform supports longitudinal studies, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.

Experimental and observational studies are essential tools in the researcher’s toolkit. Each serves a unique purpose and offers distinct advantages and limitations. By understanding their differences, researchers can choose the most appropriate study design for their specific objectives, ensuring their findings are valid and applicable to real-world situations.

Whether establishing causality through experimental studies or exploring correlations with observational research designs, the insights gained from these methodologies continue to shape our understanding of the world around us. 

Whether conducting experimental or observational studies, QuestionPro Research provides a comprehensive suite of tools that enhance research efficiency, accuracy, and depth. By leveraging its advanced features, researchers can ensure that their studies are well-designed, their data is robustly analyzed, and their conclusions are reliable and impactful.

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